Current state of World Horticultural Research
J. GANRY
Deputy-Director CIRAD-FLHOR (1)
FRANCE
This
report was developed with the contribution of
Rémy HUGON - Attaché à la Direction Scientifique
CIRAD-FLHOR (1)
(1)
CIRAD-FLHOR, B.P. 5035, 34032 Montpellier Cedex, FRANCE
I - OVERVIEW OF RESEARCH
1 - INTRODUCTION
 The objective of working
group 2, "Current Status of Horticultural Research", is to determine the
relative importance of the major research areas and to identify the present
trends in horticultural research world-wide.
The scope of the task
is to include horticulture Research & Development activities, means
and output by disciplines, areas of the world, groups of crops and type
of institutions.
This non-exhaustive
multiple approach is aimed at focusing on the most important facts and trends
without intending to present a detailed portrait of the situation.
Consequently, this report
is constructed around two approaches :
- A geographical approach, which intends to give a global but not complete
overview of the current situation and trends in horticultural research at
the international level. The presentation is done separately for fruits,
vegetables, viticulture, aromatic and medicinal plants.
- For each crop group, the presentation framework is similar : global picture,
genetic resources, plant improvement, propagation and nursery, plant protection,
crop production, post-harvest, economics and marketing.
A
case study approach, based on some relevant examples of
-
thematic activities
-
networking activities and global programmes
The geographical approach
has been based on a preliminary survey through existing or potential correspondents
in several locations (countries or regions). Each of them was requested
to write a "country report" written around "tentative guidelines" (including
crop, themes and organizations) and a questionnaire as a support to the
report (quantitative information on staff, human resources, budget, scientific
production, ...).
In order to have the
widest world coverage, 170 letters were sent to 86 countries or regions.
70 positive responses were received (75% of contacts).
From the 63 useful reports
already received (90% of expected reports and around 70% of first contacts),we
have written a synthetisizing report which tries to give a global, although
incomplete, overview of current horticultural research in these locations.
We have obtained a very
good coverage for Asia (78% of preliminary contact), and for Africa and
West Asia (74%), but a weak coverage in Latin America (46%). Information
on Western and Eastern Europe (55%) is incomplete. In North America, while
a good coverage was achieved in Canada, information on the USA is rather
weak.
Information on the private
sector is not very consistent (see WG3), due to the fact that it would require
more time and effort to penetrate this sector.
In spite of "indicative
guidelines for report", responses are very heterogeneous and there has been
a strong reluctance to filling in the questionnaire. In addition in many
cases, in developing countries and Eastern Europe countries, it is often
difficult to get specific statistical data such as budget, organization,
productivity, trained manpower, facilities assigned.
Even in industrialized
countries, such as the USA, France..., any quantification of funding or
staff for horticultural research is difficult on one hand, in some cases,
because of the numerous private and public agencies and industrial companies
involved, and on the other hand due to the fact that budgeting and staffing
are frequently done across commodity lines, so that funding for agronomic
and horticultural crops may be mixed. Therefore, it is difficult to identify
funds especially dedicated and earmarked for "Horticultural research".
Nevertheless, it is
possible to bring out some general highlights and trends from this first
survey, based on "declarations" from country representatives and deducted
from an analysis of "hard data" we have received. As previoulsly stated,
we couldn't think of having an exhaustive coverage of all current research.
This global overview
is completed by "case studies" of thematic activities and of networking
activities and global programs.
Thematic case studies
are intended to highlight some specific topics or crops in major themes,
with emphasis on current and emerging challenges, on existing skills and
capacities, in various countries and at international level, on fitness
with the present and future needs, on networking and international cooperation.
In that way contributions
are given in following areas :
-
genetic resources, with emphasis on conservation and sustainable utilization
of G.R., including a special review on "in vitro conservation".
-
breeding and crop improvement with selected examples for temperate
and tropical fruits, vegetables (cabbage, tomato), ornamentals (rose),
and a special review on biotechnology applied to horticultural crops.
-
integrated production systems in horticulture, with special focuses
on modeling and architecture analysis as basis of fruit crops management
and for greenhouse crops.
-
post-harvest for horticultural crops.
-
strategies for urban agriculture in developing countries.
Case-studies for networking
and global programs are intended to present some key experiences in that
field which may serve as support for new initiatives :
-
a fruit networking experience in Europe (Eufrin)
-
a vegetable networking experience in Africa (Radhort)
-
networking activities in the Mediterranean Region (CIHEAM)
-
networking activities in the Americas related to fruits and horticulture
(IPGRI)
-
CIP experience on potatoes and tuber crops
-
AVRDC'S global vegetable networking strategies
-
a first experience of Global Programme on Musa (PROMUSA)
In such a global picture,
including International Agricultural Research Centers (IARCs), Advanced
Research Institutes (ARIs), and National Agricultural Research system (NARs),
Italy's experience is presented as an illustration the latter.
2 - FRUITS
2.1 - Global picture
2.1.1 Fruits are generally considered as a key element of agriculture
and as a source of nutritional components of major interest.
Some
of them rank among the most important crops in the world such as bananas,
citrus, apple.
2.1.2
In some developing or emerging countries, the fruit sector is currently
receiving great investment as source of diversification and income, for
local market and moreover, export trade. Such is the case in some countries
such as Colombia, Guatemala, Chile, Argentine, Malaysia... More attention
is increasingly paid to minor fruits because of their nutritional value,
(berries, native fruits such as camu-camu, kiwi,...), and because of their
added value components for agricultural diversification. Nevertheless,
they are still often considered as secondary crops or luxury crops, if
compared to staple food crops and grains.
2.1.3
Therefore research efforts are very scarce and heterogenous, depending
on the fruit status (trade, commodity such as banana, pineapple or apple,
peach,... on the one hand ; local consumption on the other hand : durian,
berries,...)
A
reflection of that is the absence of an International Agricultural centre
specializing in fruits. One exception is banana, which has benefited from
an International Organization since 1986, named INIBAP (International
Network for Improvement of Bananas and Plantains). IPGRI, in the field
of Genetic Resources, is paying increasing attention to fruit crops.
2.1.4
All the NARS in the northern countries are involved in commodity fruit
products and research is well organized. Among the responses we received,
all the subsector activities are taken into account (genetic resources,
genetic improvement, propagation and nursery, integrated production systems,
post harvest technologies, economics). The scientific results are notable.
Inter-country partnerships are rather weak.
2.1.5
In developing countries the picture is in considerable contrast, with
countries where strong attention is paid to fruit research such as Brazil,
Morocco, India, Malaysia, China, Taiwan, and countries where there is
a great lack of expertise, of funds and of linkages with sources of information
and improved material, such as in South Pacific Islands.
2.1.6
In order to enhance national and international cooperation, recent initiatives
have been taken during the last decade to foster networking activities.
There
are many networks regarding fruit. They are based on various objectives
which lead to a specialization of activities :
MECINET (citrus / Mediterranean area), IACNET (citrus / America), SEANUC
(Fruits / Africa), EUFRIN (Fruits / Europe), MESFIN (fruits / Mediterranean
area), UTFANET (miscellaneous fruits / Asia), INIBAP (bananas), REMUFRUT
(Fruits / world). Many are focus on genetic resources : TROPIGEN, REDARFIT,
REMERFI (in Latin America), NESCRA for citrus in Asia.
Special mention should be made for INIBAP which is acting in the framework
of CGIAR.
In
the context of the Global Forum Initiative, a global program on Musa improvement
has been finalized, named PROMUSA. It is considered as a first experience
of 'Global Agronomic Research System' (see special paper).
International
societies such as ISCN and ISC for citrus, ACORBAT for bananas, play a
relevant role in this field.
International
commodity bodies exist for two fruits : one intergovernmental group on
bananas, and the other one on citrus and tropical fruits.
2.2
- Genetic resources
Several
initiatives have been taken or are emerging from international organizations
to improve fruit genetic resources, conservation and utilization.
They
mostly come from FAO and IPGRI, and are detailed as case studies in the
present document.
As
examples :
-
Genetic resources networks in Latin America : Tropigen, Redarfit,
Remerfi, .. (see paper by Ramon Lastra),
-
IPGRI's activities on Tropical Fruits in Asia : synthesis of PGR information
on priority fruits species (state reports on Citrus, Mango, Rambutan,
Durian, Jackfruit, Litchi), research emphasis on PGR conservation,
networking.
At
the country level significant activities are reported in various countries
/ regions.
In
Europe activities are, for instance, reported :
-
In Bulgaria: the Fruit Growing Institute of Plovdiv has and
investigates the main part of the fruit germplasm of 3230 accessions,
including apples, pears, quinces, peaches, apricots, cherries, almonds,
walnuts, hazelnut, strawberries, raspberries, black currants and other
small fruits.
-
In Yugoslavia: a similar collection is owned by the Federal
Institute for Plant and Animal Genetic Resources, including 3920 accessions
of apples, pears, quince, stone fruits, berries, nuts, subtropical
fruits.
-
In
Ukrainia: About 3600 accessions of apple trees and peaches are
shared out among experimental stations of Polissya, Nikitsky Botanical
garden (Kiev) and Uzhgorod University,
-
In Slovenia: a collection of old apple, pear, walnut and small
fruit varieties have started in 1990 and a genebank was formed,
-
In France: 9 650 accessions are reported and evaluated, including
apple, peach, walnut, olive, citrus in Corsica (CIRAD-INRA),
-
In Germany (H.U. Berlin, F.G. Obstbau, Zalf Müncheberg)
: apple, pears and wild fruit species,
-
In
Italy: Many germplasm collections are housing various species,
including the main pome and stone temperate fruits, strawberry, olive,
rootstock for many fruit crops.
-
In Greece: germplasm of 1050 accessions of temperate fruits
and of 400 different genotypes of subtropical species, is kept for
evaluation work.
In Mediterranean
region, Turkey, which is an important center for native fruit species,
is playing a great collecting role, principally at the University of Cukurova
(deciduous and mediterranean fruits).
In North-America,
temperate and sub-tropical fruit species are stored either in whole plant
or meristem (cryopreservation) form.
In Canada, germplasm is housed at federal government sites.
In LAC region,
valuable 'banana collections' are reported in Honduras (FHIA), Brazil, and
in the French West Indies (CIRAD in Guadeloupe), and "pineapple collections"
in French West Indies, Brazil, Venezuela.
Brazil is also strongly involved in germplasm management of cashew
nut which is of high relevance in this country, Barbados cherry, citrus,
papaya, passion fruit and indigenous fruit crops from the Amazon region.
In WANA region,
significant attention is paid to fruit genetic resources in Yemen
where indigenous fruits and nuts are present and sometimes
used as rootstocks (peach, almond...). Collecting works have been carried
out. Recently, good conservation facilities in the Plant Genetic Resource
Unit, are now available with support of IPGRI / WANANET. Interesting landraces
of figs and pomegranate are reported. Farmers are involved in genetic resource
preservation.
In Africa significant
fruit collections are reported in Sudan (date palm, citrus), in Kenya (citrus,
bananas), in Cameroon (citrus, mango, bananas...), in Côte d'Ivoire
(mango, citrus). It is worth noting the outstanding Musa collection
of CRBP in Cameroon. South Africa hosts significant collections of citrus,
mangoes, avocados and pomegranate.
In other countries, such as Ethiopia, there is a need for strenghtening
capacities in that field, where priority has given to staple and industrial
crops so far.
Asia,
as the origin area of several temperate and tropical fruit species, is
rich in fruit collections :
-
In India emphasis is given to mango (more than 650 local accessions,
as basic material for breeding), banana (585 local varieties and 32
exotic), papaya (systematic collection and evaluation work).
-
Pakistan
has germplasm collection of exotic and indigenous temperate and tropical
fruits in various locations : citrus, plums, apple, peach, pear, walnut,
olives, strawberries, date palm, mango, pineapple, persimmon, loquat,
kiwi fruit.
-
Indonesia
is rich in horticultural germplasm, especially fruits. 957 accessions
(38 fruit crops) from exploration in the country are conserved in
situ in West Java (Subang) and West Sumatra (Solok).
-
In Malaysia, emphasis is given to indigenous fruits, through
relations with PROSEA and IPGRI.
-
Vietnam
as well is considered as the primary or secondary center of origin
of several fruit crops especially Prunus species in the North.
Increasing attention is being paid to germplasm preservation, collection
and characterization : mango, citrus, longan, banana, prunus.
-
In China, 15 institutes are involved in Fruit germplasm management,
including 6812 accessions collected from China and grown in 60 ha
of germplasm nursery.
They include Citrus (from mountainous areas of SW China), Malus
(apple), Actinidia (kiwi fruit), peaches, and several neglected
fruits with high potential (e.g. hawthorn, ...)
-
In Taiwan the Chayi Agricultural Experimental Station (TARI)
hosts a field collection of 800 accessions (representing 49 families,
11 genera and 200 species), as a base for breeding. It includes 150
citrus accessions for regional adaptability. The TBRI (Taiwan Banana
Research Institute) hosts a regional collection of 600 accessions
(including 450 from Asian Pacific Region) in the framework of INIBAP.
-
In Korea, the National Horticultural Research Institute (NHRI)
is paying attention to the collection and evaluation of spontaneous
mutants in major fruit trees.
2.3
- Plant improvement
Conventional
breeding is still playing a major role in fruit improvement. Such is the
case in temperate countries, where most of the research is focused
on resistance to biotic (pests and diseases) and abiotic stresses, plant
architecture, size and quality traits.
Several
example are reported in Europe for pome and stone fruits, including rootstocks
breeding, small Fruits and nuts : Norway, Switzerland, Italy, Belgium,
Germany, France, U.K., Slovenia, Bulgaria.
A
European Network for the improvement and the evaluation of rootstocks
and interstocks for pome and stone fruits is in progress, with participation
of most European countries,
Other
examples are reported in :
-
Korea
: apple, oriental pear and peach,
-
Japan:
pear, chestnut, Prunus,
-
New
Zealand: pome fruits (apple, pear), and kiwifruit.
-
Canada
: apples and stone fruits, raspberry, strawberry, blueberry and
grapes.
Breeding
works on Citrus are reported in the USA, France, Japan, New Zealand, Spain.
With
an aim of optimization and efficiency, genetic studies and non-conventional
techniques, are increasingly supporting conventional breeding :
As
examples :
-
Genetic studies including cytogenetics and molecular approach : phylogenic
relationships (particularly in the Prunus group) and genetic
mapping (Prunus, Malus and Citrus), in France
in the context of international program ; study of parthenocarpy via
synthetic genes and differentiation mechanisms in Italy ; molecular
markers for apple, pear and walnut breeding in Slovenia ; immuno-molecular
plant biology and molecular genetics in New Zealand,
-
Marker-assisted selection (for example for peaches resistance to diseases
and fruit quality in France),
-
Non conventional approaches based on biotechnology : e.g in France,
haphloïdization for peaches, apple and citrus combined with somatic
hybridization, which is a good opportunity to develop interspecific
hybrids ; in Belgium : in situ androgenesis of apple.
-
Genetic transformation is currently used in several country, e.g :
in France (transformated plant for Pyrus and for Prunus),
Italy (genetic engineering of olive, actinidia, citrus, cherry), Belgium,
the Netherlands, U.K., Korea (high solid content and fruiting control),
Japan, New Zealand, Canada (berry crops for novel fungal resistance),
USA.
It is worth noting that
significant works are carried out in biotechnology on tropical species such
as bananas in European laboratories : in France (CIRAD, Universities), Belgium
(KUL), including somatic embryogenesis and genetic transformation.
In Mediterranean
countries, breeding efforts are given to citrus, olive, date palm and
some deciduous fruits. As example :
-
in Egypt : variety / rootstock trials of grapefruit, ortanique,
clonal selection of the local variety of olive, selection of apples
and pears resistant to fire blight.
-
in
Israel : rootstock and varieties improvement (citrus, mango, avocado,...)
including clonal selection, conventional breeding and biotechnology
approaches (transformation, somatic hybridization,...)
-
in Morocco : selection of several citrus cultivars ; Clementine
(extension of harvesting period), orange types (nucellar clones) ;
introduction and selection of different rootstocks. Research activities
are conducted on date palm for resistance to bayoud,
on deciduous fruits (early varieties of peaches, selection for low
chilling requirements, diseases and calcareous / salinity resistant
rootstocks (including somaclonal varieties). Clonal selection and
micropropagation of olive is also performed.
-
in Turkey : selection of citrus, loquats, pomegranates and
deciduous fruits (peach, apple), with support of biotechnology tools
(molecular markers, protoplast fusion ...)
-
in Greece : citrus (variety /rootstocks trials), olive (cloned
selection), apple (scab and mildew resistance), pear (fire blight
and psylla resistance), apricot and peach (resistance to sharka),
and cherry (fruit size and productivity),
-
in
Spain : citrus, Prunus.
In WANA countries
some breeding activities are reported :
-
in Yemen : evaluation of low-chill culture of peach, apple,
plum, apricot, cherry, pear. Evaluation of local varieties. Selection
of rootstocks resistant to drought and high pH.
-
In Sudan : evaluation of grapefruit and orange varieties, and
screening of citrus rootstocks.
In Africa, breeding
activities are reported in several countries :
- In Uganda emphasis is given to mango, citrus, avocado and
passion fruits,
- In Kenya, promising lines of passion fruit resistant to collar
rot disease were selected. Introduction and evaluation of other fruit
are being conducted : mango, banana (through INIBAP), strawberry, papaya.
- In Cameroon, CRBP is conducting significant work on breeding
of banana and plantain, in close interaction with other programs such
as CIRAD's in Guadeloupe.
In South Africa, temperate fruits as well as subtropical fruits
are considered for breeding. Basically, simple conventional approaches
supported by some biotechnological tools, are used for tropical fruits
such as mango, avocado, litchi, citrus, granadilla, guava, papaya.
For temperate fruit, strong emphasis is given to non conventional techniques
: DNA finger printing for varietal identification molecular markers for
gene mapping for agronomic traits genetic transformation for disease resistance
and extension of shelf life.
In Latin America
fruit improvement activities are reported in Brazil, Honduras, Costa-Rica,
Panama and in the French West Indies.
-
In Brazil emphasis is given to citrus (varieties and rootstocks),
pineapple, bananas, mango, Barbados cherry, guava, cashew. Biotechnological
tools are used including micropropagation of cashew, pineapple, banana,
papaya, gene transformation of papaya (resistance to Ringspot
virus), protoplasts fusion of rootstocks (somatic hybrids).
-
In Honduras, FHIA has been focusing activities on banana improvement
for more than 50 years.
-
In Costa-Rica breeding activities are reported on papaya, palmito
and citrus. CATIE is contributing to international effort on banana
improvement with basic research on biotechnology (somatic embryogenesis
and gene transfer) in partnership with CIRAD.
-
In Panama, pineapple, banana and citrus are considered for
breeding.
-
In Colombia, selections activities are carried out on papaya,
passion fruits, ...
-
In Cuba, significant works are conducted on banana, pineapple,
citrus, combining conventional and non conventional breeding (gynogenesis,
somaclonal variation, ...).
-
In French West Indies, CIRAD is being conducted breeding activities
on banana, citrus and pineapple.
In Asia the most
important works on tropical species and as well as temperate species, are
reported in India, Sri Lanka, Malaysia and Taiwan.
-
In India emphasis is given to breeding of mango, banana, papaya
, with promising hybrids released.
-
Some non conventional techniques are used such as somatic embryogenesis
from nucellar explants, or immature zygotic embryos of mango
or embryo rescue technique for banana.
-
In Malaysia, emphasis has been given to fruit breeding since
1969, with the introduction of biotechnology techniques since 1990,
such as mutation and genetic transformation for papaya, pineapple,
durian, banana. Other fruit crops are considered such as mango, guava,
soursop, mangosteen, rambutan, longan. Similar work is being conducted
in Thaïland.
-
In Sri Lanka significant results are reported for mango, citrus,
Passion fruit, low-chill deciduous fruits.
-
In Taiwan both deciduous and tropical fruits are considered.
For deciduous species such as pear, peach, the main focus is low chilling
requirement. Several tropical / subtropical species are worked on
: Citrus : combination of cross breeding and clonal selection of table
varieties. litchi : selection of seedlings and open or controlled
pollinisation. avocado : improvement for resistance to Phythophthora
cinnamomi. papaya : breeding for resistance to ringspot virus.
Other fruits are considered
: mango, carambola, Passion Fruit . Wax apple, Sugar apple, Indian Jujube.
Special attention is
given to banana breeding in TBRI, with a "somaclonal" approach. A resistant
mutant was obtained which is considered as a breakthrough in the history
of banana breeding in Taiwan. Some other promising cultivars are in progress.
Fruit breeding activities
are also reported in other countries such as :
-
Bangladesh
: hybridization of mango, litchi and clonal selection of commercial
fruits.
-
Pakistan
: breeding of deciduous fruits (peach, plum, apple, persimmon), and
tropical fruits (mango, papaya, banana)
-
Indonesia
: hybridization of mango, salak, citrus, with perspective of gene
transformation.
-
China
: mostly introduction and selection of deciduous fruits and citrus
(resistance to cold, drought, salt, diseases and pests)
2.4
- Propagation / Nursery
One
of the main breakthroughs during the last decade is the achievement of
in vitro propagation of several fruit crops, with a wide
commercial development ; it is often associated with virus-free
plantlet production, with an aim of plant certification which is
a major concern.
As
examples :
-
On deciduous fruits and nuts in Norway, Bulgaria, Germany, France,
U.K., Italy, Greece, New Zealand, Canada, USA, Japan, China, Australia,
India,
-
On mediterranean species(1), including Citrus
(shoot-type grafting) in France, USA, Greece, Spain, Turkey, Morocco,
Cyprus, Saudi Arabia, Japan,
-
On tropical and subtropical species (2) : Kenya,
South Africa, Bangladesh, India, Pakistan, Malaysia, Vietnam, China,
Taïwan, Australia, Brazil, Costa Rica, and also in some temperate
countries (Germany, France, Greece,...),
-
Selection of arbuscular micorrhizal fungi for mycorhization of planting
material of Barbados Cherry, mango, ... is reported in Brazil ; this
technique is used on banana in South Africa
-
A technique of top grafting has been performed in Taiwan for temperate
pears on to tropical pears, allowing production of temperate pears
in tropical lowlands of Taiwan, and earlier production.
-
Micropropagation
of bananas is commercially performed in Costa-Rica, Kenya, Bangladesh,
India, France, Malaysia, South Africa, Israel, Taiwan, China, Australia,
Greece. Such disease free material is used for controlling pests and
diseases of bananas such as viruses : BBTV, BBMV in Asia (India, China,
Taiwan, Egypt...) Fusarium oxysporum (India, Taiwan, Sri Lanka...)
Nematodes (most countries).
A
special mention must be made of the outstanding system for banana certification,
through INIBAP, which is based on an International Transit Centre (in
Leuven/Belgium) and two indexing Centres (Montpellier/France and Brisbane/Australia).
Recent
progress in somatic embryogensis has opened the way for new mass propagation
techniques, for bananas (CIRAD/France, KUL/Belgium, CATIE/Costa-Rica)
and for temperate fruits (e.g Italy: quince, raspberry, olive, citrus).
2.5
- Plant protection
Significant
research is reported on several topics which can be grouped in four major
themes.
-
Integrated pest management
- Biological control
- Cross protection
- Diagnosis techniques
- Host pathogen interactions.
Integrated
pest and disease management is commonly performed and associated to warning
systems, aimed at reducing perticide use.
As
examples :
-
Integrated
control of pear psylla and fireblight, and of aphids and aphids-transmitted
viruses by using biotechnical methods in Greece;
-
Viruses
and decline diseases of citrus and deciduous fruits such as Citrus
tristeza, stubborn, greening, ... in Saudi Arabia,
Vietnam, Thaïland, Taiwan, Reunion Island, Turkey, Spain, France,
USA... Sharka on stone fruits in Europe, Citrus bacterial canker in
Reunion Island, Phytoplasma and virus on Prunus in France.
-
Fruit
flies on deciduous and tropical fruits in Indian Ocean, Pacific
Islands (regional programmes are being carried out in both locations),
Brazil, Uganda, South Africa, Costa-Rica, Egypt, Cyprus, Greece (Olive,
Citrus).
-
Soil-borne
pathogens combining antagonist fungi and nematodes, mycorrhiza,
organic matter, e.g on bananas in Brazil (Fusarium oxysporum,
nematodes) and French West Indies (nematodes, Cylindrocladium),
involving NRI (U.K.) and CIRAD (France).
-
Black
sigatoka on banana associating resistance / tolerance, fungicide
sprays cultural practices, antifungi agents, ... in Costa-Rica, Honduras,
French West Indies, Cameroon, Pacific Islands and New Caledonia.
-
Apple
leaf scab, considered as a model for fungi (INRA/France); powdery
mildew and pear scab in U.K.
-
Fireblight
and Prunus bacterial canker (INRA/France).
-
Mango
black spot disease (Xanthomonas campestris), using a molecular
identification by PCR techniques, in Reunion Island and in South Africa.
It
is worth noting that Phaeramularia angolensis (Citrus cercosporiosis)
is a major constraint for citrus industry in Africa and a threat for citrus
industry in North Africa and that, however, very little research has been
conducted so far. Only a little is reported in Uganda and Cameroon.
Biological
control studies, as component of IPM, are reported in various situations,
with some examples :
in
Belgium : microbial antagonists to control Botrytis on strawberry.
- in Greece : biological control of scale insects on olive and
citrus and of white flies on subtropical plants.
- in Turkey : biological control of citrus leaf miner, of capnodis
in Prunus.
- in Brazil biological control (with B.t.) of weevil borer of banana,
- in South Africa : parasitoid for Citrus Spiny Blackfly and Citrus
red scale,
- in India biological control of mealy bug in mango and guava,
with Bauveria bassiana
- in Indian Ocean and France for fruit fly,
- in Canada : for pest management on fruit trees and for fungal
control by biocontrol agents.
Cross
protection, with a goal of controlling virus/viroids diseases, is the
subject of research in a few areas :
-
in Brazil : research is conducted on biological and molecular characterization
of virus, viroids and related pathogens to be used in cross protection
of citrus,
- in South Africa : citrus cross protection with mild strains of
Tristeza in now commonly used in nurseries.
In
relation with decline diseases (virus, viroids,...) diagnotic techniques
are reported such as :
-
monoclonal antibodies and DNA probes for detection of citrus diseases
(tristeza, greening, stubborn) in South Africa, France, Spain, Portugal,
Vietnam, Taiwan, Korea for detection of banana virus (BBTV, BBMV, CMV)
in France, Australia, Philippines, USA.
Host-pathogen
interactions are currently studied by several research teams ; as example
in Canada, the Federal Pest Management Research Centre, etc...
2.6
- Crop production
Among
the research reported in this very wide and integrated field, we have
selected a few themes which are very relevant for fruit crops.
-
Integrated Fruit Production
- Ecophysiological studies and phenology
- Use of growth regulators
- Intensive crop management
- Irrigation and fertilization
- Pollinisation
- Fruit quality
- Organic agriculture
- Mycorrhizae
"Integrated Fruit Production"
(IFP)
This approach, which is combining Integrated Pest Management and crop
environment, land and water management approaches is now well developed
in Europe, in Canada, USA, and is emerging in some developing countries
such as Malaysia (papaya, mangosteen, durian).
In Europe, "The IFP Guidelines for Pomefruits" were issued in 1994 and
are playing a reference role in the industry.
In Canada, IFP concept is included in programs such as the "Ecological
framework for Canada" and the "Environmental Farm Plan".
Ecophysiological
studies include some basic studies on phenology, which are conducted
in several countries but reported in very few (New Caledonia for
banana, citrus, mango and in Malaysia).
Some basic studies, reported in China, in Turkey, are focused
on phenological indicators of cold tolerance for citrus, apple, peach,
apricot, almond.
Studies on chilling requirements of temperate fruits in mild / hot climate
regions are reported in Yemen, Turkey, ...
In Morocco, Turkey, France, U.K., studies are
reported on physiological mechanisms of flowering, dormancy and fruitset
in relation to fruit size, alternate bearing and final quality of the fruit.
In Belgium, the
University of Gembloux is involved in ecophysiology of strawberry flowering.
Outstanding breakthroughs were in the field of architecture, growth modeling
and developmental physiology of fruit trees by a few research teams around
the world (France, Italy, USA, New Zealand, ...). A special paper on this
subject is presented as a case study.
Research on production cycles are carried out on Victoria pineapple in
Reunion Island, and on Smooth Cayenne pineapple in Hawaii (modeling).
Ecophysiological studies on tropical and subtropical fruit species, with
environmental impact on fruit production, are carried out in Germany (H.U.
Berlin).
Growth regulators
are currently used in the fruit industry, as a result of an empirical approach
in some cases, and increasingly as a result of preliminary ecophysiological
studies. On going research in that field is reported for several fruit crops
:
- use of ethylene for pineapple flower set (Brazil, Bangladesh, Malaysia)
- alternate bearing of mango : Kenya (use of KNO3 and ethefon),
India (paclobutrazole), south Pacific Islands (Fiji), Brazil, Malaysia,
Pakistan, Mexico,...
- flower set of deciduous fruits in China, (peach), Kenya (use of Dormex),
Pakistan (cherries, apricots), Germany, Canada (blueberry), Turkey (peach,
apricot, sweet cherries),
- flowering control of citrus in Morocco and Japan and several tropical
fruits in Malaysia (mangosteen, durian, carambola, ...) and Pakistan,
- growth regulator effects on strawberry runner production (Canada), on
strawberry flowering (U.K.), on thinning of apple and peach (Turkey).
Intensive fruit crop
management is reported in several countries, as a cost effective goal
for production.
Utilization
of dwarf rootstocks combined with high densities and specific cultural
practices such as pruning, thinning, etc... is subject to research on
:
- semi intensive culture of apple in Bulgaria ; intensive culture of plum,
cherries in Belgium, ultra-high density production systems for dwarf apple
and pear trees in Canada,
- citrus production and deciduous fruits in South Africa, Morocco, Israel,
Turkey, New Caledonia, China
- mango production in India, Israel, South Africa.
Canopy management
and mechanization, linked to density and light penetration are studied in
Spain (robot for citrus harvest), in Taiwan (mango, litchi), Korea, Japan,
Malaysia, Pakistan (citrus)...
Protected crops
are reported in various situations such as in Norway (sweet cherries and
plum production), Portugal (off season production of red raspberries), Spain
(strawberry), Korea (citrus, grape, pear), Morocco (bananas, peaches, ...)
with two mains objectives : protection against adverse conditions (rain,
temperature) and extension of marketing period.
Irrigation and fertilization
are considered as key elements of yield and quality above all. Significant
research is reported in Morocco, Israel and the USA (citrus and deciduous
trees), Greece (Olive, Citrus, Avocado, Kiwifruit, apple, peach), Italy
(peach, quince), Spain (citrus) , South Africa (citrus, banana, mango, guava,
deciduous trees), India (citrus and banana), Pakistan (mango, deciduous
fruits), Reunion Island (mango), Brazil (cashew), Malaysia (durian, mango,
mangosteen, carambola, banana).
Micrometric studies are carried out in France on deciduous fruits and
in Reunion Island on mango in order to evaluate water requirements ; plant-water
relations studies are also reported in Germany.
Some research on pollination
as a key factor for production is especially reported for date palm in Morocco
and Pakistan, and other fruits trees in Greece (self incompatibility,
pollen tubes growth).
Fruit quality is a common
objective of several research activities previously reported. Specific research
on 'quality elaboration' is reported in France by INRA and CIRAD (peach,
citrus, banana), Greece (peaches), South Africa (deciduous fruits), Taiwan
(mango), New Zealand (Carbon partitionship), Canada (deciduous fruits).
Some examples of research
of organic agriculture are reported in Egypt, Taiwan (guava), Slovenia,
and the USA.
Special attention is
paid to the use of mycorrhizaes in Canada : effect of micorrhizal population
on the growth, development and yield of strawberry.
2.7 - Post harvest
The statement is frequently
made that here is a lack of appropriate technologies and research in developing
countries (Kenya, Uganda, Southern Africa, Cambodia, ...) facing very high
post-harvest losses levels.
Two major sectors are considered : post harvest management of fresh
fruits and processing, with three key words : post harvest
losses, quality and human health (including the pesticide residue aspects).
Research on post
harvest management of fresh fruits is widely reported including, generally,
cold storage, controlled atmosphere and sometimes specific technologies
such as precooling or ionization.
- Research on cold storage and controlled atmosphere are carried out in
several countries : European countries, Turkey, Canada, USA, Japan, Brazil,
Kenya (mainly on mango, avocado, passion fruit, papaya), South Africa
(mango, litchi, papaya, pineapple and deciduous fruits), Bangladesh, Malaysia,
China, India ("zero energy cold chamber"). Such techniques are considered
as environmentally friendly.
- Reference to "precooling technology" is done in India for mango
in Turkey,
- Post-harvest fruits preservation, using non chemical treatments, is
reported in Canada (ionizing radiations), in New Zealand, Australia, New
Caledonia (hot water treatments), France (micro-waves treatments for dates),
- Studies on post harvest physiology and ripening are reported in Brazil
(banana, papaya), Pakistan (mango, mandarin), Korea (ethylene releasing
agents), China (use of growth regulators), Malaysia (fruit softening),
France (deciduous fruits, mango, litchi), Belgium.
Research on the effects
of pre-harvest technologies on post harvest quality is reported in South
Africa for mango, pineapple, macadamia, banana, in France (FWI) for bananas,
Canada for a wide range of temperate fruits. In the same way, attention
is paid to harvesting time, and maturity / harvesting indices in European
countries, Morocco (for citrus, date, olives...), Kenya (avocado), Sri Lanka.
INRA in France,
Hort Research in New Zealand, HRI in U.K., and some other
institutions in Greece, Italy or Canada for example,
are paying a special attention to the ethylene biology, biosynthesis and
genes expression in maturation and post harvest evolution and to biochemical
processes which are responsible for physiological disorders, such as enzymatic
darkening of fruits, or which are responsible for starch sugar or acid levels.
Biochemical and molecular markers of fruit development are identified for
texture and flavor.
Improvement of harvesting
and handling techniques is made in several cases : Morocco for citrus, South
Africa, Sri Lanka (low cost appropriate technologies), Malaysia, Thaïland,
New Zealand (Apple, Kiwifruit). Quality management is a key element of the
fresh fruit industry calling for innovative approaches such as HACCP techniques
and non-destructive assessment of the quality (examples are reported in
France, UK, Belgium, New Zealand, Canada). Antagonist fungi are considered
as a key alternative to pesticides in South Africa, Italy, ...
Improving shelf life is also a major concern in various areas such as
Thaïland.
Fruit processing is a major component of the fruit industry, receiving
an increasing attention from the agro-industrial sector in relation with
consumer needs (healthy products). Almost every producing country is more
or less involved in fruit agro-industry research : Norway (drying techniques,
breakfast cereals...), France (drying and enzymatic techniques for temperate
or tropical fruits), Portugal (dried fruits), Canada (microbial research
in preservation and cryogenic freezing), Brazil (cashew juice), Sudan
(mango, grapefruit concentrate, lemon drying), South Africa (juice without
preservatives), Bangladesh, Taiwan (heat processing concentration, fermentation,
drying), India (canned mango slices and juices), Pakistan (fruit drying),
Korea (fermented food), Malaysia (minimally processed products).
New processing technologies are being worked on, focusing on product quality,
such as membrane techniques for juice (CIRAD France, Colombia).
Quality assurance systems
for selected processed fruits are subjects of increasing attention in several
countries (European countries, Malaysia...).
2.8 - Economics / Marketing
On-going research in
this field is not very common. Two main aspects are considered :
- crop management
- marketing chain and trade studies
In the first category,
studies are reported in Greece (Efficency of greenhouse enterprises,
productivity of peaches and oranges ; costs of production and economic efficiency
; contribution of the tree-production systems to the economic and social
development of semi-mountain and montain areas of Greece), France
(fruit production costs, competition effects, work remuneration), Egypt
and Turkey (management of citrus orchards), Sudan (socio economic
studies of production and marketing for date, lemon), Bangladesh
(survey on current state of production, production costs and return, input
assessment), India (expert system for technology transfer), Malaysia
(agribusiness and technology management).
In the second category,
major activities are reported in France and Belgium with studies related
to subsector marketing and world fruit trade including the regulation of
professional organization and the globalization process. Some 'trade intelligence'
studies are reported in Sri Lanka.
A special mention must be done to "Urban aspects of fruit production and
trading" in Germany (H.U. Berlin).
A particular attention is increasingly given to the elaboration of produce
qualities, specifying the origin of the product (labelling, ...), e.g
in European countries such as Greece (specification of
"Mediterranean products" as traditional Greeck products).
3 - VEGETABLES
3.1.1
The field of vegetables is characterized by a great diversity of species
and cultivars and by a great diversity of situations. In each situation
only a few types are subjected to research programs with little in common
from one country to another. Nevertheless, vegetables represent unique
crops which are grown under all climatic conditions, from cold to equatorial
climate, such as tomatoes, cucumbers, cabbage, etc.
3.1.2
They play a major and increasing role in basic food security. For the
rural and urban population in the tropics, vegetables are considered as
an important source of vitamins and minerals. They also contribute to
roughage and fiber, and supplementary protein and calories. They play
direct and indirect roles in diversifying dietary patterns and providing
employment, especially to women, and income to purchase the components
of a balanced diet. For the developed countries, vegetables are increasingly
subject for attention as lowering the risk of certain diseases.
Currently, average vegetable availability per capita per day is estimated
at about 100-110g in South Asia, Southeast Asia and South America, while
in Sub-Saharan Africa, it is far below 100 g. These averages are only
about half of the recommended 200 g that is necessary to provide adequate
amounts of essential micronutrients.
3.1.3
Nevertheless, during the last decades, and despite their economic role
and their importance in the human diet, they have not generally been given
the research attention they deserve, particularly in Africa and some Asian
countries where priority is given to staple grains and food crops, or
industrial crops (Malaysia). Therefore, in several conditions, horticultural
crops, including vegetables, received the least attention in terms of
funding as they were considered luxury crops (Zimbabwe, Malawi, Zambia...).
3.1.4
Increasing attention paid to these crops is rather recent, in relation
to :
- their "food security" value, as in Malawi where the largest sector
of the population depends on vegetables as their major sources of proteins,
due to lack of "animal proteins".
- their economic value for local markets and for export, as in Argentina
where increasing presence of supermarkets and new trading opportunities
(global / regional market as Mercosur) are favoring these crops, in Guatemala,
where export vegetables appear to be a very promising system because of
their high labor intensity and expanding demand in industrialized countries,
or in Korea where horticultural crops are considered to be a better
source of rural income than other crops.
Vegetable production is substantially labor-intensive ; thus, it generates
more income per unit of labor or land occupied per day than cereal production.
In
traditional producing countries, as India or China, and new producing
countries as well, the general trend is that of a shift from small scale
production system (small holders) to commercial oriented production system,
which generates new needs for research with key words like 'quality',
'competitiveness', 'human health', 'environmentally friendly production'...
In that context, urban and peri-urban horticulture needs special emphasis.
3.1.5
In the same way "food safety" and environmental aspects are becoming more
and more important as research objectives. As a matter of fact, vegetable
production could have certain negative effects on the environment and
human health. Soil erosion, poor water quality, and pesticide residues
are major issues in the tropical highlands.
3.1.6
Generally speaking, attention has been given to research needs during
the last decades in some European and North American countries and in
some Asian countries such as India, China, Taiwan, Malaysia, Bangladesh...
with the generation of various technologies :
- protected crops in northern countries
- resistance to pest and disease, and tolerance to heat in tropical countries.
- optimization of watering and plant nutrition.
For
example, in the past three decades, India has made significant
progress in the field of vegetable research, as it is the second largest
vegetable producer in the world after China where big research
efforts are also being made in that field.
3.1.7
In many developing countries, most of the vegetable seeds are imported
from developed (and temperate) countries, very expensive and unsuited
to local conditions.
There is a great need for research and development in that field where
many activities are relevant to the private sector.
3.2
- Genetic resources
Except
for vegetatively propagated vegetables, such as garlic, shallot, potato,
... genetic resources are preserved through seed conservation.
In
Europe, and Mediterranean Region, some significant germplasm collections
are reported.
As
examples :
- In Turkey : which is the genetic origin of several vegetables,
great emphasis is given to the germplasm collection evaluation and characterization
(radish, naked pumpkin, squash, leek),
- In Greece : 1 600 indigenous populations of vegetable plants
are preserved in cold storage facilities in the multicrop Greek gene bank.
It represents only a fraction of the existing germplasm in the geographic
area of Greece, which is planned to be collected in the coming years.
- In France, a collection of several vegetables has been evaluated
and is currently maintained within networks at the 'Bureau des resssources
génétiques' : eggplant, mushrooms, tomato, cabbages, etc.
- In Germany, germplasm conservation is conducted on a broad scale
at the "Federal Center for Breeding Research on Cultivated Plants" in
Gatersleben.
- Portugal has a high genetic diversity of Brassica landraces,
that are the basis of a Brassica germplasm collection at Institudo
Superior de Agronomia, Lisboa.
- Vegetable genebanks are also reported in Slovenia, New Zealand,
and Italy (artichoke, bean, pepper),
- In Canada, a collection of potato germplasm is maintained by
Agriculture and Agrifood Canada, and a tissue culture bank of potato seeds
, too, in Alberta.
Significant
activities on genetic resources are reported in Africa and in Asia
as well.
In
Africa, collection and characterization of indigenous vegetables (including
leafy vegetables, cucurbits, ...) are undertaken in Uganda and
Kenya, where they are called AIV (African Indigenous Vegetables).
Vegetable genebanks are also reported in Sudan which is
the origin of several crops including watermelon and in Ivory
Coast, including 1 160 varieties as the basis of a genetic improvement
program.
In
Asia, great attention is paid to vegetable genetic resources. AVRDC
(3)plays a leading role in that field with an impressive
collection of various key vegetables (1996's datas) : Allium (985 accessions),
Crucifers (1 522 accessions including 800 of Chinese cabbage), Eggplants
(2 246 accessions), Pepper (6 857 accessions, managed in collaboration
with UPLB in the Philippines), Tomatoes (6 951 accessions), Legumes (6
257 accessions of mungbean and 12759 accessions of soybean).
Apart
from AVRDC, but often in relation with them, several countries in the
region are also paying great attention to vegetable genetic resources
:
-
China, with a long history of vegetable industry has rich germplasm
resources, as it is the originating center or secondary originating center
for many vegetables. More than 16 000 local germplasm accessions were
collected and sorted out during the last 20 years, and some threatened
material was saved. Many rare vegetables were discovered in areas such
as Yunnan, Inner Mongolia, Xingiang and Tibet. All these achievements
have laid a firm foundation for vegetable germplasm resource study in
China.
- Taïwan , where active programs in the collection, conservation
and characterization of vegetables have been taking place under the coordination
of the National Plant Genetic Resources Center, which was established
in 1993.
- Bangladesh has given priority to indigenous vegetable genetic
resources and is conducting activities of germplasm collection, evaluation
and characterization, conservation of seeds for medium and long term at
its Plant Genetic Resources Center. They exchange germplasm both at national
and international levels.
- In Indonesia, some 2038 accessions of 14 vegetables crops are
conserved in the form of seeds in cool seed-storage conditions.
- Malaysia as well, has given emphasis to indigenous vegetables,
in close cooperation with PROSEA (Plant Resources in South East Asia),
IPGRI, CIP, AVRDC and JIRCAS (Japan).
- Korea is also conducting activities in germplasm evaluation,
conservation and characterization.
In
the field of roots and tubers, CIP(4) is playing a
major role :
- Biodiversity of potato, sweet potato and Andean root and tuber crops,
- Collection, description, maintenance, evaluation and utilization of
germplasm.
3.3
- Plant improvement
A
lot of work is currently conducted by seed companies and information is
not easily available.
In
temperate and mediterranean countries, most of the research is focused
on resistance to pests and diseases, using conventional (including cytoplasmic
male sterility, self incompatibility) and non conventional approaches
(including haploidization and gene transfer). Such work is reported from
all western European countries, USA, New Zealand, Slovenia, Turkey, Japan,
Korea.
As
examples :
Haploidization
methods has been very successful especially in melon and shallot, in France,
in onion in Slovenia, in asparagus, onion, eggplant and pepper in Italy.,
in melon in Turkey,
Protoplast fusion is used in Korea,
Transgenic technology is being carried out in several countries,
e.g :
-
in France on lettuce and potato for nitrate content, on melon for
maturing mechanisms and ethylene biosynthesis, on lettuce for virus
resistance,
-
in Italy and the Netherlands for diseases and pests resistance , and
specific qualities and product differenciation,
-
in New Zealand for improving the quality of onion, squash, asparagus
and lettuce,
-
in Canada for leafroller resistance on potato and herbicide resistance
in cruciferous crops.
Biochemical
and molecular approaches are applied in several situations :
-
in France : to the understanding of self incompatibility in broccoli
and cauliflower lines, gene mapping of sweet peppers,
-
in Belgium (University of Gent): gene cloning, molecular biology and
stress physiology (ozone, stress, bacterial, fungal, nematode infections,
role of ethylene, salt, drought),
-
in Turkey : DNA finger printed method,
-
in Korea : early screening for resistance.
In
subtropical and tropical countries, numerous work is reported.
In
Asia, AVRDC is playing a major role in connection with Asian countries
where improved varieties are evaluated (such as Bangladesh, India, Pakistan,
Malaysia, Indonesia, Thailand...)
AVRDC priority crops, with related objectives, are :
- Tomato : fresh market, processed tomato, cherry tomato. Year round production
supply in tropical countries, adaptation to high temperature and high
humidity with resistance to Bacterial wilt, Late blight, viruses (TYLCV,
CMV, PVY).
- Peppers : improved inbred lines for resistance to anthracnosis, CMV,
CVMV, mites, thrips and tolerance to flooding.
- Eggplants : stable high yielding varieties with improved fruit quality
and resistance to bacterial wilt (and leafhopper and cotton aphid)
- Alliums : onions, garlic, shallots...: long bulb storage quality of
onion and garlic, heat tolerance, resistance to diseases (Stemphyllium
leaf blight, anthracnose, garlic viruses) and pests (onion thrips).
- Crucifers : Chinese cabbage and common cabbage, heat tolerance, high
yielding and early maturing, with resistance to diseases such as TuMV
(Turnip Mosaic Virus)
- Mungbean, soybean.
Conventional
methods include hybridization, clonal selection (garlic), mutation (garlic),
cytoplasm male sterility (crucifers).
Molecular
marker assisted breeding is increasingly used, especially for resistance
to TLCV, CMV, PVY.
Biotechnological
methods are used such as :
- QTL mapping of bacterial wilt resistance
- Identification of molecular markers linked to heat tolerance
- Transformation (agrobacterium) of tomato for resistance to fusarium
wilt.
In
Taiwan, the national organizations, especially TARI, are conducting
activities in partnership with AVRDC and also on complementary crops :
- cucurbits : cucumber, melon, gourd, watermelon
- leafy vegetable ; spinach, amaranths,
- crucifers : broccoli, mustard
- radish
- yard longbean
Biotechnological
techniques are performed such as haploidization of Brassica,
linkage mapping of melon, genetic transformation of melon and watermelon
for resistance to viruses.
In
China a great deal of new improved varieties were released from
traditional breeding (tomato, green bean, sweet pepper) and using hybrid
vigour aimed at hybrid seed production technology. A major objective is
disease resistance.
Non-conventional techniques were used such as radiation breeding, anther
culture for haploid plants (eggplant, tomato, Chinese cabbage, hot
pepper), protoplast culture of cucumber, tomato, carrot, sweet
pepper.
In
Bangladesh, research is conducted on traditional breeding and F1
hybrid production for resistance to pests (borer) and diseases (bacterial
wilt, virus) of various vegetables (brinjal, tomato, watermelon, bottle
gourd, onion, chilli)
Biotechnology work is being performed through somatic embryogenesis
of teastle gourd, watermelon, aroids, on meristem culture of potatoes
for elimination of virus and true potato seed progenies.
In
India research focus is enhancing productivity through exploitation
of hybrid vigor and breeding for high yielding, disease resistant varieties.
Since 1971, a great number of hybrids have been developed in tomato, brinjal,
squash, mushroom, cucumber, pepper, cabbage, cauliflower, watermelon,
radish, onion, garlic, potatoe, ...
Emphasis
was also put on breeding of cabbage and cauliflower, heat tolerant varieties
adapted to the southern region of India.
Some achievements in biotechnology are reported :
- protoplasts from leaf mesophyll of capsicum and tomato
- anther culture of carrots,
- embryo rescue of triploid progenies of watermelon,
- micro propagation of triploid watermelon
- genetic transformation (Agrobacterium) of potato with CP gene and BT
gene.
Breeding
activities are also reported in :
- Pakistan : tomato, pepper, onion, watermelon, potato
- Sri Lanka : brinjal, tomato, capsicum, okra
- Indonesia : tomato, potato, cabbage, shallot, chilli
- Malaysia : conventional breeding and genetic transformation.
In
Africa, research is conducted in West Africa, in Tanzania, in the
framework of ARP/AVRDC and in South Africa.
-
In West and Central Africa, activities are mostly reported
in Ivory Coast, in Burkina Faso, Mali, Senegal, Chad, dealing mostly
with tomato, onion, okra, African eggplants.
-
In Tanzania, emphasis is put on tomato in the framework of
tomato improvement program for African Highlands (TGIP), whose goal
is to develop cultivars in these regions with disease resistances
to TYLCV (Tomato Yellow Leafcurl Virus) and late blight, as priority
and also to mosaic virus, root-knot nematodes and fusarium wilt.
Multi resistant selected tomato lines have already been released in
collaboration with other SADC countries and Kenya, Uganda.
-
In South Africa, emphasis is put on :
- broadening the genetic base of potatoes, by using wild potato species,
- developing superior vegetable breeding lines and cultivars
with drought and disease resistance with support of DNA marker technology
and genetic transformation.
-
In Ethiopia: in the last 30 years, limited number of varieties
have been developed for onions (for bulb and flower), tomato (for
freshmarket and processing industry), hot pepper, potato and sweet
potato. Some attention is paid to ensete which is playing a
major role in Ethiopia.
In
Indian Ocean region, research is carried out by CIRAD in Reunion
Island on Allium improvement (onion, garlic, shallot) and by MSIRI in
Mauritius on tomato (salad and cooking varieties) in relation with AVRDC.
In
WANA region, Egypt is reporting work conducted by AGERI (Agricultural
Genetic Engineering Research Institution) on gene mapping of tomato
and genetic transformation on squash and cantaloupe for resistance
to ZYMV, on tomato for resistance to leafcurl virus, on potato for resistance
to virus Y.
Finally
in Latin America, Brazil (especially EMBRAPA / CNPH) is
conducting breeding for Brassica oleacea (focused on resistance
to diseases and adaptation to heat), supported by self incompatible parent
lines, embryo rescue technique and genetic transformation approach for
resistance to viruses.
In Argentina, INIFAT, is developing new cultivars (potato, sweet
potato, onion, tomato, beans, paprika, sweet corn), through joint ventures
with private enterprises.
In
Central America, Panama is involved in breeding of processing
tomato and pepper (resistance to bacterial wilt), onion, melon, watermelon,
carrot, potato,...
A project on "Genetic transformation of Roots and Tubers" is conducted
by University "Santa Maria la Antigua".
CIP
is deeply involved in potato and sweetpotato enhancement, based on marker-aided
breeding and biotechnology :
- one third of potato grown in developing countries are derived from CIP
material,
- one major goal is durable Late Blight resistances.
3.4
- Propagation / Nursery
In
most situations, seed production is in the hands of the private sector.
In most developing countries, seeds are mainly imported from the international
market, due to lack of appropriate technology in these countries. Information
and training are also lacking. Nevertheless, some positive evolutions
are noticeable, e.g in South Pacific were seed policy guidelines are being
developed for vegetables.
We have noticed some exceptions in India, Korea, Thaïland, and Kenya
where seed quality enhancement is a priority.
India
is self-sufficient in temperate vegetable seeds, due to "open seed policy"
of India which has encouraged many private companies and joint
ventures between public and private sectors. Thaïland is currently
exporting seeds. In Kenya emphasis is put on vegetable seed production
in high altitude (carrots, onion, cabbage) and on tropical seed of indigenous
vegetables (through NGOs). Little basic seed production is reported in
Africa, e.g in Mauritania, Senegal, Chad.
In
several cases, emphasis is put on "virus free" production of vegetative
vegetables such as potatoes and garlic :
- in Brazil, Bangladesh ("True potato seeds"), Vietnam, Indonesia, Pakistan,
Indonesia (meristem culture of potato), Morocco (micro-tuber production),
- in AVRDC (garlic, shallot),
- in CIP (True Potato seed varieties and seed systems).
Grafting
on resistant rootstocks is worked out in Morocco for resistance to nematodes
(tomato, cucumber, melon) and in the Carribean for resistance to bacterial
wilt.
Somatic embryogenesis is reported for asparagus micro propagation in New
Zealand, and for garlic in Turkey.
It is worth noticing the "International Chili Pepper Nursery" (ICPN) in
AVRDC, which is the new name of INTHOPE (International Hot Pepper Network)
to conform with international standards for naming nurseries.
3.5
- Plant protection
Integrated
Pests and Diseases Management of protected or open field crops is the
key word for vegetable plant protection. It is a combination of genetic
resistance / tolerance, pesticide applications, cultural practices, biological
control, with respect to environment and human health and aiming to reduce
risks of overcoming resistance.
Awareness
of this important approach varies from one country to another.
In developing countries, some countries such as Thaïland are paying
a strong attention to this matter.
But in numerous cases (Ethiopia, Vietnam, ...) due to shortage of experiencied
manpower, training and facilities, achievements are very limited, generating
risky stituations for environment and human health.
-
Basic studies on development of diagnostic tools, on variability, on plant-host
interaction and on the structures and dynamics of parasite populations
are conducted in some places such as INRA in France, AVRDC in Taiwan (allium,
pepper, tomato pests and diseases), CIP in Peru (potato, sweet potato),
Canada (molecular approaches).
-
Fungus diseases are studied in several situations, including forecasting
systems in some cases (such as in Egypt for potato early blight) : late
blight, fusarium wilt.
-
Soil borne diseases, including nematodes, are particularly studied in
France(ORSTOM and INRA), Belgium (KUL), Italy, Morocco, the Carribean,
Brazil (EMBRAPA), Senegal, Uganda, Kenya. New biological pesticides are
tested in several situations (such as neem in Kenya, Canada, Vietnam...).
-
Virus complexes (TYLCV, Geminivirus,...) are studied in interaction with
insect vectors (Liriomyza, aphids) in Cyprus, India, French West
Indies, Reunion Island (virus disease of garlic and shallot), Mauritius
(epidemiology of Potato Virus Y and Tomato Mosaic Virus), Peru by CIP
(diagnosis and management of virus in seed and production systems of potato
and sweet potato), Canada (potato leafroller virus, tomato mosaïc
virus, etc ...).
-
Preimmunization is used to protect zucchini from ZYMV.
-
Bacterial wilt, due to Ralslonia solanacearum, is a
major constraint on solanaceous vegetable in numerous situations,
particularly in hot and wet situations ; research is reported in AVRDC,
Reunion Island, French West Indies, Mauritius.
-
Integrated pest management and biological control on Diamond Backmoth
(Plutella), a very common pest on cabbage, in several countries
such as Canada, Brazil, South Africa, India,
Nepal, Sri Lanka, Thaïland, Indonesia,
Malaysia, the Philippines, Taiwan, New Zealand,
Australia, West Africa. Significant research is conducted
by CIRAD in France in partnership with Brazil, West Africa and AVRDC.
-
Integrated Pests and disease Management and Biological control in
protected crops (greenhouses or plastic tunnels) are considered for
insects and mites (such as aleurodes in tomatoes), e.g in France,
Belgium, U.K., USA. They also highly relevant for diseases, e.g in
Canada (canker on pepper, powdery mildew on tomato, cucumber, tomato),
U.K., USA.
3.6
- Crop production
Significant
research is conducted on several topics which can be grouped into five
categories :
- ecophysiological studies
- year-round production
- protected culture
- urban agriculture, home garden and hydroponics
- organic culture
Ecophysiological studies are devoted to interaction between environmental
factors and growth and development of the plants, especially for protected
crops, with a goal of modeling (see paper by C. Gary). Such research is
principally reported in France, U.K., Norway, Germany, Netherlands, Belgium,
Portugal, New Zealand, Canada, USA, Cyprus, Japan... and also in Colombia.
The quality of vegetables in relation to environmental factors and cultural
techniques is a major goal in several situations, for example in Greece,
in Italy, in Portugal (brassicas).
In
AVRDC, emphasis is put on the effect of daylength, of temperature and
flooding on growth and development of Allium. Growth regulator use is
studied in Cyprus (tomato fruit set), in Bangladesh (flower / fruit set
in potato / tomato, sex modification (teastle ground, cucumber). Plant-water
relations are considered in Italy (tomato, artichoke).
Biochemical and molecular
characterization of the growth and development of tomato is currently carried
out in France by INRA, in relation to the final fruit quality. Some research
teams (INRA/France, KUL/Belgium) are also paying attention to research related
to the optimization of resource management such as carbon and nitrogen (in
order to reduce the nitrate content).
Year-round production
is a major goal in several situations, including tropical and sub-tropical
countries :
- in Asia : South East Asia, India, Taïwan,
- in Africa : e.g, enhancing onion production period through the use of
precocious production technique based on small bulbs (Burkina Faso, Cape
Verde, Senegal).
Studies on protected
crops are conducted in temperate and mediterranean countries and focused
on year-round and off-season production including in some cases heating
during winter period (Netherlands, Belgium, France, U.K, Norway, Switzerland,
Greece, Canada, Korea, Japan, Turkey, Morocco, Arab countries) and in subtropical
/ tropical countries as well with a goal of rainy season off-season production
: tomato in French West Indies, cauliflower and tomato in Bangladesh,
onion in Northern India , vegetable forcing under tunnels in Pakistan,
development of cost-effective systems including nutrients, bio-organic fertilizers,
soil-less cultures in China, wool fiber substitute cultivation in
Germany (TUM), types / colors of netcover for melon and asparagus
in Taiwan. Attention is given to substrate and nutrient recycling by various
research teams in France (INRA), Belgium (Gent),...
Substrate culture and NFT (Nutrient Film Technique) are being worked in
Turkey.
Studies on soilless production system are reported in Italy (effect
of closed and open system in tomato, melon, ...) in Turkey and
in Reunion Island (prevention of bacterial wilt). INRA in France,
University of Gent in Belgium, are giving particular attention to the
development of hydroponic crops where water and mineral supplies need
to be simultaneously regulated.
Increasing activities
are carried out in the field of urban agriculture : e.g TUM (Germany),
France (CIRAD), the Netherlands (DLO) and U.K. (NRI), in partnership with
Asian and African countries (see case-study by W. SCHNITZLER).
For home garden and hydroponics, emphasis in these fields
is mostly put in Asia, such as Bangladesh (year-round vegetable production
model for home garden), Taiwan and AVRDC (hydroponics for household use
; non recycling system).
Work on organic agriculture is increasing very fast. It is reported
in Egypt (biofertilization and biological control of pests and diseases)
in Turkey and Taiwan (application of effective microorganisms), USA.
Many activities in that field were started in Switzerland, in the Netherlands,
and have a high priority in other countries in Europe (crop rotation,
organic nutrition, special ingredients for soil activity and plant health).
Irrigation
and fertigation are commonly worked out in several situations, overall
in Mediterranean and Sahelian climates, e.g in Morocco (assessment of
irrigation systems, water requirements).
3.7 - Post harvest
Two
key words are "quality" and "food safety" for fresh as well as processed
or canned vegetable.
Research
on fresh vegetables, post harvest treatments and storage including
cold conditions and controlled atmosphere is reported in several countries.
:
- Norway, Belgium, Netherlands, Italy, France, U.K., Canada, Turkey, Japan,
Morocco ... : controlled atmosphere storage and packaging ;
- Argentina : post-harvest technology for prolonged shelf life of products
(tomatoes, potatoes, paprika, onion and garlic, melon, strawberries) ;
- Bangladesh : cold storage, shelf life improvement
- Malaysia and Thaïland : mechanized packing house systems, controlled
atmosphere and cold storage
- China : cold storage and fast-frozen conservation, Gamma-ray irradiation.
- Taiwan : cold storage of garlic bulbs, controlled atmosphere storage
of cabbage ; improved shelf life of leafy vegetables by pre-cooling system
and controlled atmosphere storage.
- Korea : storage methods during shipping for prolonged freshness (radish,
cherry, tomato), improvement of packing methods of strawberry for export.
- New Zealand : harvest scheduling, handling, desinfestation, prolonging
shelf life.
- Greece : storage at low temperature, post harvest handling (e.g asparagus),
- West Africa : onion storage (low cost and locally feasible techniques).
Emphasis is generally
put on non destructive measuring of quality (France, Belgium, ...)
and on maturity indices as well, which are a key element of post-harvest
quality (Kenya, Sri Lanka, Morocco).
In the field of processing
work is reported in Bangladesh (heat processing, fermentation, drying and
concentration of potato, tomato, onion, cabbage), in Malaysia (fluidized
drying of vegetable snacks), in Taiwan (vegetable pickles, fermented vegetables),
in Korea (new processed food from melon, radish, ...), in France 'ready-to-use'
products (enzymatic liquefaction of juices and purées, steam pasteurization),
in New Zealand (adding value to primary vegetable products).
An increasing attention
is given to minimally processed and "ready-to-eat" vegetables with appropriate
packaging, e.g in France, Italy, Malaysia.
Emphasis is put on nutritional value by KARI in Kenya, by AVRDC in Taiwan,
INRA in France, HRI in U.K., Food and Crop Institute in New Zealand :
development of methodologies for quality assessment and for improving
nutritional quality (AVRDC) effect of food processing (cooking...) on
presence of iron (quality) quality evaluation of vegetables dehydrated
under low temperatures and humidities) (AVRDC) role of secondary metabolites
with antioxidative properties, as prevention tool for some diseases (INRA/France
; TUM/Germany, Food and Crop/New Zealand), safety of products for consumers
e.g in the Netherlands, France, ...
In several situations
in developing countries a lack of effort in this field is reported, which
is considered as a major cause of post-harvest losses and low competitiveness.
Therefore, it is generally considered as a high priority for the future,
for local market and export as well. Such is the case in Brazil, in African
countries (Kenya, Uganda, Tanzania, Zimbabwe, Zambia, Malawi, Ethiopia),
in Sri-Lanka (low cost appropriate technology to reduce post-harvest losses),
in Cambodia.
3.8 - Economics / Marketing
Very
little research is reported in this field except in Taïwan by AVRDC,
in European countries, e.g France, the Netherlands, ...(competitiveness
in international markets, including commercial chain and management at
the producers level, vegetables supply of urban areas in Africa and marketing-chain
studies).
Increasing
attention is paid to "Information Systems on Markets", e.g in West and
Central Africa countries such as Senegal, Chad, Cape Verde, Ivory Coast.
|
