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Urban Agriculture Research in Latin America: Record, Capacities and
Opportunities
by Julio Prudencio Bohrt UNITAS1, La Paz, Bolivia 1993
1.0 INTRODUCTION
 Regional Research Record
Overall Diagnosis A review of existing bibliography on UA experiences in
Latin America shows that:
(a) The most researched, tested with and widespread production system in
Latin American cities is the family, school or community/group vegetable
garden. Vegetable gardens can consist of greenhouses, micro-climatic tunnels
(organic beds) and open-air plots (solar gardens).
(b) The main produce grown is: vegetables (tomatoes, squash, broad beans,
lettuce, onions, radishes, etc.); forest production (for reforestation and
ornamental purposes) including flowers and medicinal plants; and some fruits2,
although to a lesser degree.
(c) The second fairly well developed activity is the breeding/raising
of small livestock (pigs, chickens, hens, rabbits, etc.), which are fed
with the vegetal production residues. Family units mainly carry out this
activity.
(d) Most family vegetable gardens are for self-consumption.
Although output is not
large, it affords diversification and a supplement to the basic diet. One
aim is also to increase family income and create employment. Vacant urban
lands are put to use, transportation costs are reduced, food quality is
improved, and energy/caloric supply are increased. Communal vegetable gardens
are attempting to grow produce for market and to generate income for the
organization and its family members. 
They are faced with
a series of difficulties: high production costs, lack of resources to gain
access to markets (transportation, storage, refrigeration, etc.); poor management,
low productivity (due to soil exhaustion, lack of water and seed), scarce
technical counselling. The main objective of the school vegetable gardens
is to supplement the diet of school children, complemented by education
and training in farming activities and practices.
Most beneficiaries
of urban agriculture are low-income families living in suburban or marginal
city areas. As a rule, practitioners do not have permanent employment,
nor agricultural ability or knowledge. Women are the main garden workers
and beneficiaries followed by other family members (spouses, older daughters,
grandmothers), school children (between 6 and 12 years old) and teachers.
People practising this activity tend to be migrants from old urban settlements,
as opposed to recent migrants from rural areas.
The latter feel this
is a typical agrarian activity, and they wish to adopt city ways and activities
which supposedly improve their cultural status. Most vegetable gardens worked
by low-income beneficiaries do not benefit from adequate technical guidance
or orientation. There is no sewage treatment nor use of excreta as fertilizer.
There is no production of biogas (from wastes) nor residual processing,
or any type of efficient complement with other activities.
There is a scarce technological
adaptation emanating from a few European NGOs; traditional technology is
used in many of the vegetable gardens. The situation for urban farmers
with more resources and knowledge is somewhat different. They have more
resources, they work with improved seeds, drip irrigation, use fertilizers
and pesticides, and have more suitable lands and other advantages.
The support received
by urban vegetable gardening systems in most of Latin American cities where
it is practised can be summarized as follows:
* Nongovernmental organizations (NGOs) are usually the main promoters of
these activities. They support the construction and spread of family and
community vegetable gardens, implement technical and educational training
workshops (with other specialized government agencies), and support training
in administration (although with many weaknesses) and accounting.
* NGOs also promote reforestation and vegetable production through the distribution
of donated food (CARITAS - Adventist Churches, etc.) with little support
for marketing, conservation and product distribution.
* International cooperation agencies (UNICEF - Technical Cooperation with
Governments, PNUD, etc.) also finance NGOs' urban agricultural projects,
although rarely offer the support of technical specialists in the field
or promote research (use of organic wastes, water recycling, etc.). Some
agencies finance urban and rural reforestation programs for erosion control.
* National governments offer very little support. In some countries, specialized
organizations cooperate in agricultural technical training (Argentina),
or in a better utilization of water resources (Chile). In others, support
is limited to health and education campaigns in supplementary nutrition,
using products from the schools' vegetable gardens.
* Regional autonomous governments (such as municipalities or prefectures)
collaborate the most in agricultural activities taking place within the
informal economy. Overall, they undertake campaigns for the collection of
seeds and native seedlings used in afforestation programs of desertic urban
areas and for public ornamental purposes (parks, squares, etc.). They also
finance programs for the purchase of forest trees, flowers, etc. although
in a limited way.
* The rest of public and private institutions do not exert a major impact
upon urban agriculture, although there are a few exceptions as in the case
of Brazil's electricity utilities. ------------------------------------------------------------------------
2.0 REGIONAL RESEARCH RECORD: STRENGTHS AND WEAKNESSES
2.1 Some experiences
contributing to urban agriculture There are a few experiences relating
to urban agriculture which must be mentioned, both for their contribution
toward improving agricultural systems and for the overall successes achieved.
Some of the experiences occurring in the Latin American countries are being
disseminated; these experiences refer to the relationship between urban
agriculture and solid and liquid residues recycling, biogas production treatment,
reclaiming of fertile lands and other facets.
2.1.i PROGRESAR Cooperative,
Colombia For instance, the PROGRESAR Cooperative, in Colombia, is (1) implementing
a garbage collection program, through a cleaning and garbage collection
contract in urban developments, in exchange for the exclusive rights to
the waste, and (2) the recollection of refuse in hospitals in exchange for
free health services to pregnant women (members of the program) and newborn
children. PROGRESAR also has contracts with large companies which buy these
materials (glass, cardboard, etc.) for recycling.
2.1.ii Hydroponics
Production, Colombia A very important experience with hydroponics production
in Colombia should be underscored, which presently is not well known throughout
Latin America (although this is not the case in Central America). It is
based on low capital input and is labour- intensive (contrary to what has
been achieved in Europe, the U.S. and other countries where hydroponics
is practised). It is also based on the reduction of production costs, minimal
land requirement, and the absence of problems with contaminated water.
2.1.iii CIPUR (Research
and Urban and Rural Projects Centre), Peru In Peru, CIPUR (Research and
Urban and Rural Projects Centre) has created solid waste domiciliary collection
projects in those human settlements which are in a critical situation.
Many peripheral urban areas are affected by adverse geographical conditions
(sand pits with high inclination gradients or slopes and narrow streets)
which render completely ineffective the use of conventional domestic solid
waste collection methods. Therefore, a micro-enterprise system was created
(groups of approximately twenty workers, associated as a legally constituted
business enterprise with limited liability) offering services with wheelbarrows,
brooms, rakes, sound devices, and proper attire. Two workers collect and
transport the refuse to so-called collection centres from where it is subsequently
carried to sanitary landfill sites. While the CIPUR is in charge of the
promotion, selection, training and equipment of the micro-enterprise personnel,
the municipality of the district is in charge of collecting payment for
the services rendered. The success of the system rests on the management
capabilities of the micro-enterprise workers and on the harmonious relationship
with the population and the local government.
2.1.iv ALTERNATIVA
Social Research and Popular Education Centre Another NGO, the ALTERNATIVA
Social Research and Popular Education Centre, has also established refuse
collection systems through regional cleaning cooperatives and it is preparing
projects for compost production and sanitary manual micro-landfills. The
objective of the Compost Elaboration Plant is to offer to municipalities
an alternative system of management and treatment of commercial organic
waste, and to induce the creation of a micro-enterprise which would be in
charge of the compost plant, thus bringing profit to the different local
markets and, at the same time, treating approximately 7.5 tonnes of organic
waste daily (from which 2.5 tonnes of compost, useful to fertilize and enrich
soils, will be obtained). The aim of the Manual Sanitary Micro-landfills
Project is to give final treatment to the wastes of different neighbourhoods
(separating inorganic elements suitable for industrial recycling, marketed
to intermediaries) thus reducing transport costs, generating employment
and saving time to broaden the services provided.
2.1.v Democracia
y Libertad (Democracy and Freedom), Brazil There are also some experiences
in Brazil which should be underscored given their relationship with urban
agriculture activities. * In the city of Londrina, in Southern Brazil,
the members of a small neighbourhood organization (called Democracia y Libertad
[Democracy and Freedom]) started communal work on vegetable production not
only due to the scantness of financial resources and the lack of permanent
employment, but mainly due to the scarcity of available land belonging to
them. They started the communal work on vegetable production after encountering
many problems in order to obtain available space for the production intended.
* The electricity utility (CESP) of Sao Paulo, Brazil, has been working,
during the last few years, on the construction and testing of small digesters
for the improvement of organic fertilizers and the utilization of biogas
and bio-fertilizers. Small digesters can be easily managed by rural and
urban agriculturists and contribute to ease agricultural work.
2.1.vi Club de Hornero,
Argentina There are also many experiences in Argentina, as is the case
of the improvement of nonfertile soils through household wastes used as
manure and fertilizer, carried out in Buenos Aires (Argentine) through
an institution called the Club de Hornero which has succeeded in accounting
for both technical and agronomic aspects.
2.1.vii INTA (Instituto
Nacional de Tecnología Agropecuaria or National Institute for Agricultural
and Livestock Technology), Argentina The last topic to be addressed refers
to the inter-institutional degree of coordination and networking obtainable
within the different facets of urban agriculture. Such is the case of the
INTA (Instituto Nacional de Tecnología Agropecuaria or National Institute
for Agricultural and Livestock Technology) in Argentina. INTA successfully
obtained the cooperation and involvement of various specialized organizations
(governmental and nongovernmental) such as universities, technical schools,
Ministry of Agriculture, Ministry of Health, different municipalities and
others, in the training and technical education of low-income families involved
in vegetable production. Currently, this work has benefited more than 75,887
people, out of which there were 7,366 living in communities, 17,720 school
children and 50,831 family members. Twenty percent of the beneficiaries
are employees, 34% are self-employed, 8% are small producers, 5% are workmen,
20% are journeymen, and the rest (9%) are retired people and unemployed.
There is a total of 10,414 family vegetable gardens, 673 school vegetable
gardens and 180 communal ones distributed through 12 provinces in Argentina.
To conclude, there is scant or limited publication of experiences on urban
work and there is almost nonexistent linkage and coordination between these
works. In general, the scope of the work is limited to its region or vicinity
without the experience reaching beyond. One of the reasons contributing
to this problem is the lack of systematization of the results obtained and
its dissemination through publications, workshops, etc. ------------------------------------------------------------------------
2.2 Underscoring some aspects From the analysis so far, we can say
that:
a) Urban agricultural systems implemented in Latin American countries are
usually undertaken by populations of scarce economic resources, nonpermanent
employment, or agricultural training.
b) These activities represent some support to family consumption/nutrition,
and a relatively significant level of economic backing to the overall family
income.
c) Most of the cases studied involve specialized activities related to the
production of small volumes of specific products (thus increasing production
costs). They have not achieved sufficient product diversification, and
they need to compete in a marketplace characterized by a high supply-demand
competition and free determination of prices.
d) Problems are also encountered with the marketing of the agricultural
products, because: deliveries are not made at specified times; there are
no refrigeration systems; and the transportation prices represent a very
high cost in the overall selling prices.
e) There are problems related to suitable agricultural lands because urban
congestion (in some cases), and the incorrect use of available lands, preclude
their use.
f) There are problems with water for irrigation purposes, due to high contamination
levels.
g) There is no technological package suitable for each medium or region,
which the beneficiaries could manage by themselves.
h) As a general rule, the agricultural systems of the vegetable gardens
accumulate an excessive number of beneficiaries with the corresponding dilution
of the benefits obtained.
i) The training provided to the beneficiaries, with some exceptions, is
not comprehensive, as it does not touch upon subjects such as accounting,
administration, marketing, etc. all of which impinge on the final results.
j) The overall support provided to these activities is very limited, and,
in general, it is provided by NGOs. There is little participation by the
state, and practically no credit facilities, technological transfer, etc.
For these reasons, these activities ought to be handled, not as isolated
projects, but as a broad and comprehensive program, in which national and
international organizations could participate.
k) Experiences regarding work on waste recycling are almost nonexistent
or very localized, and the theory and practice behind this principle have
not been widely disseminated.
l) Several Latin American experiences could be extrapolated and suggested
for the African situation, and two of them figure very prominently because
of their greater applicability:
1) Carry out work in COORDINATION with other institutions or organizations:
* With government agencies, to technically support the use of fertilizers
and seeds, the amelioration of the water infrastructure, the mobilization
of popular organizations and training campaigns for the dissemination of
information and the financing of these activities.
* With municipal governments, to logistically support the securing of resources,
such as available land and water, to carry out experiments in the marketing
of products, the legal defense of communal lands used in urban agriculture
and the creation and implementation of an environmental defense code.
* With international cooperation agencies, to obtain not only the necessary
financing but also to have access to all other opportunities they create.
A very clear example is charitable organizations belonging to churches which
have popular soup kitchens; these soup kitchens could buy urban agricultural
products as they would from a regular supply source. There should also be
coordination between those agencies which distribute donated food: through
internal monetization programs, the agencies buy nationally produced food
to distribute it as donated victuals.
* With the various national and international NGO's, to avoid the repetition
of experiences already carried out or avert committing the same mistakes;
to exchange information, establish major contacts, transfer appropriate
technologies, etc.
2) It is necessary to search for the greatest DIVERSIFICATION possible in
the agricultural production carried out in urban agriculture. The objective
of this production would be to obtain the largest possible monetary earnings
for the beneficiaries, and to MINIMIZE production RISKS and market price
instability.
3) Production QUALITY must be emphasized because this will determine the
market demand of urban agricultural products in the ensuing competition
with the rural agricultural production. 4) Finally, agricultural techniques
which are LABOUR-INTENSIVE should be stressed, since African and Latin American
countries are characterized by great unemployment and a work force with
little training and by scant financial support. There is need for greater
training-technification of the work force and lower financial costs since
capital is the lesser available resource. ------------------------------------------------------------
3.0 APPRAISAL OF RESEARCH CAPACITY
3.1 Institutions directly committed The following is a short list
of organizations and institutions carrying out activities related to urban
agriculture in Latin America. Most probably, it is incomplete, although
we believe it includes some of the more important institutions.
3.1.i ARGENTINA
* CENTRO DE ESTUDIOS URBANOS Y REGIONALES (CEUR) (Centre for Urban and
Regional Studies) Av. Corrientes 2835 Cuerpo "A" 7° piso 1193. Buenos
Aires. CEUR performs social analysis and research, issues publications
and it has contacts with local and national authorities. Contact: Pablo
Gutman
* CLUB DEL HORNERO (Baker Bird's Club) Av. Corrientes 2835 Cuerpo "A"
6° Piso 1193 Buenos Aires The Baker Bird's Club works on studies to improve
infertile soils by means of household wastes. Contact: Jaime Nisnovich
* VERDE ESPERANZA (Green Hope) Virrey Arredondo 2652 Capital Federal
Operates vegetable gardens worked on by youths and children. Contact: Ángela
Alvarez
* CIPES Calle Zobaly N° 2677 Buenos Aires This organization works on biological
food production and supplements it with popular education and technical
assistance. Contact: Luis Rigal
* INSTITUTO NACIONAL DE TECNOLOGIA AGROPECUARIA (INTA) (National Institute
for Agricultural and Livestock Technology) (PRO VEGETABLE GARDEN Integrated
Project) Alsina 1407, 2° Piso, Of. 62l 1088 Buenos Aires INTA works in
vegetable production through community, school and family vegetable gardens,
and also provide technical training and counselling. It also works in coordination
with several government and private institutions. Contact: Daniel N. Diaz,
P.Eng. --------------------------------------------------
3.1.ii BOLIVIA * ENDA - BOLIVIA (Comprehensive Program - Youth of the
Street) Casilla Correo 9772 FAX (591) (2) (81.14.46) La Paz ENDA Bolivia
carries out organic wastes recycling work and also works through community
vegetable gardens. Contact: Michel Gregoire, P. Eng.
* SOLIDARIDAD LTDA. (Solidarity Ltd.) (Agricultural and Marketing Cooperative)
Calle Escalon Aguero 547 (Zona Villa Tejada)EL ALTO FAX (591) (2) (35.63.22)
LA PAZ Solidarity Ltd. works with greenhouses, microclimate tunnels and
open air vegetable gardens with low-income families from the urban periphery.
Contact: Prof. Ernesto Valdes
* "GREGORIA APAZA" Centre for the Promotion of Women Calle Eulert 215
- Villa 16 de Julio Casilla 12571 - LA PAZ (El Alto) The organization "Gregoria
Apaza" basically works with women from the city's marginal areas. The community
vegetable gardens are outstanding among the different activities carried
out by this organization. Contact: Lic. Diana Urioste (Director)
* CENTRO DE INFORMACION Y DESARROLLO DE LA MUJER (CIDEM) (Women Information
and Development Centre) Calle Aspiazu 736 Casilla Correo 14036 FAX (591)
(2) (37.42.61) LA PAZ CIDEM basically works with women in different work
areas, one of which is forestry production and vegetable gardens. Contact:
Ximena Machicado ------------------------------------------------------------------------
3.1.iii CHILE
* CORPORACION DE DESARROLLO SOLIDARIO (CODESOL) (Corporation for Solidary
Development) SANTIAGO - Chile CODESOL works in support of the production
of hydro-vegetable gardens in the poor districts of Santiago and provides
technological support. It maintains links with the Catholic University,
La Serena University and the Ministry of Agriculture.
* CENTRO PARA LA GESTION TECNOLOGICA POPULAR (CETEP) (Centre for Popular
Technology Management) Venezuela (Barquisimeto) CETEP supports popular
organizations in the search for and application of simple and appropriate
technologies to improve the quality of life of poor families.
* PROGRAMA DE ECONOMIA DEL TRABAJO (PET) (Work Economics Program) Academia
del Humanismo Cristiano Catedral 1063 - 6° Piso Santiago - Chile PET works
in socioeconomic research and also provides technical training to marginal
and impoverished sectors. Contact: Mariana Schkilnik -----------------------------------------------------------------------
- 3.1.iv PERU
* CIUDAD (City) Bronsino 119- of 301, San Borja - Lima Telephone 37.65.25
Fax 42.17.66 This is an NGO which works on projects dealing with urban vegetable
gardens and wastes recycling. Contact: Jorge Burga
* ALTERNATIVA (Alternative) Emeterio Perez 348 Urb.Ingeniería San Martin
de Porres - Lima Telephone 81.58.01 Fax: 81.68.26 ALTERNATIVE works in
the field of vegetable gardens and solid and liquid wastes recycling. Contact:
Josefina Huamán (Director)
* CIPUR Baltazar La Torre 570 - Lima 27 Telephone 40.91.61 Fax: 40.79.82
CIPUR is another NGO working in the fields of urban agriculture and wastes
recycling in Peru. Contact: Jorge Ruiz de Sommocurcio (Director)
* GUAMAN POMA Apartado 627 - Cuzco Telephone: 23.59.31 Fax: 22.55.52
Guamán Poma is a NGO working in the Cuzco region in community vegetable
gardens and in wastes recycling. Contact: José María Gómez G. (Director)
------------------------------------------------------------------------
3.1.v MEXICO
* GRUPO DE ALTERNATIVAS TECNOLOGICAS (GAT) (Technological Alternatives Group)
GAT is an institution providing advisory services and technological training,
to families of scant economic means, in the field of growing vegetables.
* PROMOCION DEL DESARROLLO POPULAR A.C. (PDP) (Promotion of Popular Development)
Tlaloc 40 - 3 11370 Mexico, D.F. PDP supports the socioeconomic development
of marginal population sectors, through productive and self-building projects.
Contact: Luis Lopez Ll. ------------------------------------
3.1.vi COLOMBIA
* ENDA - COLOMBIA A.A. 091369 Bogotá ENDA supports harvesting and energy
generation in marginal neighbourhoods. Contact: Jean Jacques Guibbert.
* ASOCIACION DE PRODUCTORAS DE HIDROVERDURAS DE JERUSALEN (APROHIJE)(Hydroponic
Producers' Association of Jerusalen) APROHIJE is the foremost Latin American
institution devoted to the development of small-scale hydroponics based
on commercial fertilizers and chemicals. It has carried out projects in
close cooperation with the Municipality of Bogota and the Social Foundation
of Colombia. ------------------------------------------------------------------------
3.1.vii BRAZIL
* DEMOCRACIA Y LIBERTAD (Democracy and Freedom) Zona de Cambé - Ciudad
de Londrina (City located in Southern Brazil) Democracy and Freedom is
a neighbourhood organization, which in the beginning worked with one community
vegetable garden. Today, it has extended its activities to 14 additional
vegetable gardens. It also works on the recovery of municipal lands and
in water use and recycling (sources and lagoons). This neighbourhood group
receives support from the municipality and UNICEF. ------------------------------------------------------------------------
3.2 Institutions/organizations possibly linked to urban agriculture
3.2.i ARGENTINA
* CARITAS ARGENTINA (social assistance)
* MUNICIPALITIES Buenos Aires, Río Negro, Rosario (logistical support)
* Ministry of Education (education)
* Ministry of Agriculture (technical training)
* Ministry of Health and Social Action (education) * NGO - MADRE TIERRA
(Mother Earth)
* RETURN TO THE LAND PROGRAMME (In Mendoza)
* Agronomic University of Buenos Aires (technical support)
* National Technical Education School (In San Juan) (technical support)
3.2.ii BOLIVIA
* CARITAS BOLIVIA (social assistance)
* ADRA - OFASA (social assistance) * Bolivian Centre for Information and
Educational Action (CEBIAE) (technical support and training)
* Ministry of Health and Social Welfare (health support and nutrition)
* Ministry of Education and Culture (education)
* UNICEF (technical and financial support)
* Honorables Municipalities (forestal technical support)
* RICCERCA COOPERAZIONE (technical Assistance)
* Promotion and Education Experiences Association (AIPE) (nutritional
institutions)
* Environmental Fund (technical support)
3.2.iii CHILE
* University of Chile (technical support)
* Catholic University (technical support)
* PNUD (technical and financial support)
* Solidarity & Social Investment Fund (FOSIS) (financial support)
* La Serena University (technical research)
* Ministry of Agriculture and Irrigation Directorate
3.2.iv PERU
* CELADEC (NGO) (training support)
* International Potato Centre (technical support)
3.2.v COLOMBIA
* Apprenticeship National Service (SENA) (training)
* Social Welfare Department of Bogota (nutritional health) ------------------------------------------------------------------------
4.0 FUTURE RESEARCH OPPORTUNITIES
4.1 Brief comments The Latin American experiences in popular hydroponics,
solid waste recycling, water treatment, rural digester and biogas and bio-fertilizers
utilization are widely scattered regionally, and have been supported, encouraged
and sponsored by different institutions at various times.
4.1.i Popular hydroponics Popular hydroponics have been initially
implemented in Bogota, Colombia, with the technical support of PNUD (Regional
Project for Surmounting Poverty). This project demonstrated the popular
hydroponics possibilities in water, air and substrates as applied in those
social sectors of low economic means. Popular hydroponics were mainly administered
by women (90% of the total). This is a low investment economic activity
with low input costs, and does not require large spaces, heavy nutrients
or concentrated input, but which does necessitates continuous technical
support. Although this is an activity demanding individual responsibility,
it unifies the family since parents and children participate equally in
the production process. Hydroponic production has not only increased and
diversified food consumption but has also generated income through the marketing
of products.
4.1.ii Solid waste recycling Solid waste recycling has been vigorously
experimented in the Lima, Peru, suburban areas, by the ALTERNATIVA and CIPUR
institutions. This work has been described. It receives some modest support
from a few national institutions (municipalities, universities, churches),
plus some financial assistance from Dutch NGOs, such as CEBEMO, which back
this type of work.
4.1.iii Water treatment The Planta de Celulosa Forestal e Industrial
de Santa Fé (the Santa Fe Forestal and Industrial Cellulose Plant) in Santiago
de Chile, is one of the greatest success stories in water treatment. The
Bío-Bío river, from the river-head to its sea embouchure, runs over 300
km through human settlements, small mining buddles, industrial complexes
and other areas which discharge all types of contaminants and refuse in
ever increasing proportions. To make the cellulose plant located at the
river watershed of the Bío-Bío compatible with the use of its waters, the
Santa Fe Plan has entered into an agreement with the University of Concepción
to baseline study the contamination, assess future impacts, monitor these
and make appropriate recommendations. The results of this study are forcing
the company to carry out further studies in the design and the construction
of a water treatment system (effluent neutralization and subsequent fibre
decantation in a clarifier) to guarantee the appropriate minimum quality
conditions for water use.
4.1.iv Impact of urban agriculture on urban families There are
very few studies and research on the impact of urban agriculture on urban
families. This impact has been studied by some research centres, such as
UNITAS in La Paz, Bolivia (see the studies carried out by Julio Prudencio),
CEUR in Buenos Aires, Argentina (see particularly the work carried out by
S. Finquievelich) and, to a lesser extent, the work of Luz Cereceda and
Max Cifuentes in Chile (specially the paper: What do the poor eat? Eating
patterns, shopping strategies and survival mechanisms). These studies were
carried out from different viewpoints: type, survival strategies of poor
families, women, energy and environment. Sectors involved in the different
processes mentioned (water recycling, hydroponic production, etc.) are different
actors (researchers, NGOs, private enterprises, international organizations
and even state-owned companies) and support is provided by various organizations,
such as the PNUD-NNUU, the Dutch government through Dutch NGOs, etc. Any
intervention on the different aspects of urban agriculture (organic waste
recycling for fertilizer use, water treatment, hydroponic production, improvement
of infertile soils, etc.) should seek the collaboration of sponsoring financial
and technical institutions (PNUD, Dutch cooperation agencies, etc.), government
organisms such as municipalities, prefectures and, if possible, ministries
with the relevant technical expertise/jurisdiction. From the analysis of
experiences, situations and challenges of urban agriculture implemented
by low-income populations of different Latin American countries, some points
emerge which should be considered in future urban agricultural applied research.
------------------------------------------------------------------------
4.2 Water recycling systems Research problem: Many Latin American
cities have, characteristically, a series of underground3 and aboveground
creeks and rivers (for example, Lima, La Paz, Santiago) which crisscross
the whole city carrying waters that are used for different purposes; whether
to carry solid wastes, garbage or even dead animals. These waters are not
only used in the urban production of vegetables and other products grown
through urban agriculture, but for the self-construction of homes, washing
of laundry (as an occupation in which housewives engage to obtain some economic
revenue) and for direct human consumption, (preparing meals, or drinking
water for the different animals these low-income families raise). This
situation, common to several Latin American cities, is the causal agent
of permanent cholera breakups, and confirms that most of the sewage waters
carried by rivers passing through most of these cities are carriers of Vibrio
colerae. Faced with this situation, governments have developed some courses
of action to control these epidemics and eliminate contaminants, in view
of the impact these have upon the nutritional health of the population,
on the production of fresh produce and even upon their export trade. In
just a few days, many hectares of agricultural lands in several Latin American
cities, which until then had been traditionally worked by urban farmers
or by farmers exploiting their fields in the periphery of urban areas, and
who had been irrigating with waters from contaminated rivers, have been
either destroyed or taken out of production. Similarly, many people have
died of cholera and hundreds of thousands are under intensive care, all
of them contaminated by the consumption of agricultural produce. Despite
the ongoing programs to sensitize the population to the dangers of using
these contaminated waters, nothing has been achieved until now because there
has not been an alteration of the situation since no structural solutions
are offered, and, above all, because the low-income population lack material
resources which would enable them not to use or to stop using contaminated
waters or to consume products irrigated with them. Objectives: a) research,
analyze and build water treatment systems to recycle water to make it fit
for human consumption and for the preparation of meals, and for urban agricultural
production; b) subsequently, research, analyze and build monitoring systems
for the conditions of rivers to satisfactorily ascertain water status. Implementation:
Several steps must be taken in order to implement the previously stated
objective. First, preliminary analysis must be undertaken on the actual
contamination of rivers, not only at points were tributaries discharge their
waters, but also in areas of eventual dissemination of pollutants, and in
the areas preceding the said discharges. This will determine the basic level
of pollutants carried by rivers and their impact upon wildlife and monitor
and correct any critical situation. Also, basic contamination parameters
and projections of their future impact should be developed. A water treatment
plant system for subsequent fibre decantation in a classifier should be
built. The second step, following a monitoring period, will be useful for
treatment according to the needs detected after relevant monitoring. Urban
agriculture can fulfil a significant role in the recycling of organic residues
from the water, since these residues are good fertilizers once the pathogens
are removed. However, research must be undertaken to define the level and
type of solution which is admissible, bearing in mind the type of urban
produce grown. ------------------------------------------------------------------------
4.3 Popular hydroponics4 Research problem: One of the main obstacles
affecting urban agriculture, as practised by low-income families in Latin
American countries, is water contamination. This problem has been explained
in depth in the previous section. Other problems include: scarcity of land
or spaces suitable for urban agriculture (due to increasing rural-urban
migration; urban congestion and high demographic density); exhaustion or
waste of current agricultural urban lands (due to overexploitation); or
the long distances where other suitable, unutilized, farming lands are located.
Objectives:
a) to determine the social, economic, agronomic and marketing feasibility
of producing vegetables, either as a group of products or individually,
by popular hydroponic principles applied by low-income population in urban
and semi-urban areas;
b) to formulate a Popular Regional/National Hydroponics Program which is
able to articulate, support and promote, over the long term, the efforts
and activities of the different institutions which are participating in
the said program. Implementation:
Hydroponics is a farming method based on aerated water or substrates saturated
with nutrient solutions, requiring several steps for its correct implementation.
* Education and training in hydroponics techniques, together with reference
material and measuring devices.
* Training in adapting the technology to the physical and climatic conditions
of each city/region where the project would be installed, and to the characteristics
of products consumed at each locality.
* To promote in each region a minimum basic knowledge to motivate the interest
of urban farmers in the hydroponics technique to then be able to detect
and formulate specific projects
. * Preparation of massive dissemination popular hydroponics programs (by
establishing demonstration vegetable gardens at the institutional and group
levels) leading to the alimentary self-sufficiency of low-income families.
* Support and follow-up experiences based on models adapted from other countries.
* Joint work among international institutions (PNUD), governments, NGOs
and associations of producers to achieve better operational results. In
synthesis, it can be said that to become an efficient hydroponics producer
requires knowledge on the part of the user, technical assistance to identify
optimum nutrients (inputs), adapting traditional products to the hydroponics
technique, and identifying solutions to physiological, environmental, health
and other problems. Similarly, hydroponics is an activity in which all
members of low-income families can participate, without requiring large
free spaces, and with definite nutritional and economic benefits for the
household should some of the products be sold, with the added possibility
of feeding (with food wastes) small domestic animals raised in the household.
Water recycling and popular hydroponics are closely interconnected with
improving the environment and with achieving sustainable development. ------------------------------------------------------------------------
4.4 Impact of urban agriculture upon the urban family To supplement
the applied research on waste and water treatment and popular hydroponics,
socioeconomic research is suggested on the impact of urban agriculture at
the micro-family level. Although this activity has been broadly disseminated
in the cities5, particularly among low-income families, there is a series
of questions to which no answer has been forthcoming, namely:
* What urban agricultural system is the most advantageous for the families?
* When implementing urban agriculture, what are the main problems?
* in marketing the products?
* in organization/administration?
* in production?
* in availability of technology?
* in training?
* What are the benefits of urban agriculture for the family?
* in terms of consumption/nutrition?
* in terms of contributing to the alimentary sufficiency of the family?
* in terms of income-expenditures of the family?
* in agronomic terms?
* in social terms?
* in terms of time invested?
* What productivity levels are achievable with urban agriculture?
* What recycling levels of solid and liquid wastes are achieved?
* What support is given to this activity in terms of credits, technical
assistance, technological transfer, etc. from NGOs, state institutions and
international institutions? Socioeconomic research can be undertaken in
several Latin American cities, considering different agricultural production
systems used by low-income families, to accurately determine real impact
upon the family in terms of consumption/nutrition, income and expenditures,
use of family labour (especially the role played by women); supplies to
urban food markets, and yields achieved in the cities. The elaboration
of a common research protocol for a multiple-country study is recommended.
This would ensure comparable results, and a method to specify areas requiring
more support than others. ------------------------------------------------------------------------
5.0 FOOTNOTES
(1) UNITAS - La Union de Instituciones de trabaja y accion social An umbrella
organization of 23 NGO's.
(2) Although there are other more sophisticated products, such as mushrooms,
broccoli, strawberries and others, these are produced by farmers with greater
technical knowledge and economic means (water, land, etc.).
(3) For example, the city of La Paz is crisscrossed North-South and East-West
by more than 200 underground creeks and rivers.
(4) Although hydroponics is known throughout the world, it is not generally
known or practised in Latin America, with the exception of Colombia and
some small regions in Central America where it is being promoted with excellent
results.
(5) There are several studies on this topic, although with different approaches
and perspectives.
|
Urban Agriculture Research in Latin America:
Record, Capacities and Opportunities
by Julio Prudencio Bohrt UNITAS1, La Paz, Bolivia 1993
Ayzin KUDEN
1. Introduction
Horticultural research
in Turkey has begun in 1940's. The institutes and the faculties have performed
good collaborations with the national organizations including international
ones such as DAAD, CIHEAM, INRA, IPGRI, ICARDA, CLIMA, CIP, FAO, UNDP, European
Community, British Council, etc. Mainly TAGEM (General Directory of Agricultural
Research), and TUBITAK (Scientific and Technical Research Council of Turkey),
DPT (State Planning Organisation of Turkish Government) and NPC (National
Productivity Center) and the Research Fund of the Universities are supporting
the projects. The universities also have partnerships with the organisations
and universities of the other countries such as Germany, G.Britain, USA,
France, Italy, Spain, Belgium, Portugal, Chile, Poland, Syria, Hungary,
Sudan, Israel, Romania, Egypt, Uzbekistan, Albania and Pakistan.
Now, we shall perform
the research activities in Turkey, for crops and disciplines
2. FRUITS
2.1. Global Picture
Turkey is one of the
fruit centers of the world. Different geographical regions of the country
let them to grow almost every parts of the country. Many kinds of fruits
can be grown in various regions. North Anatolia, called as Black Sea region
is one of the main genetic origins of several fruits such as apple, pear,
sweet cherry, walnut, hazelnut, chestnut, etc. 2 100 000 tons of cultivated
apples are grown mainly in the middle Anatolia with local and foreign apple
cultivars. Ni?de, Tokat, Amasya, Isparta, Konya, Karaman, and Bursa are
the main apple centers with very suitable climatic conditions. Pear and
quince are the other important pome fruits mostly grown at the Marmara,
and the Middle Anatolia regions.
For the stone fruits
almost all the prunus species are grown in the country. Recently, the most
extending species are sweet cherries and apricots. Wild sweet cherries are
originated in the Black Sea forests and the cultivated sweet cherries are
extended to the north, west and south parts of the country.
Peach is mainly grown
in Marmara region, but also extended to the Aegean and the Mediterranean
regions, especially with low chilling requiring cultivars. Peach exportation
is made from Marmara and the highlands of the Mediterranean regions with
very late peach cultivars ripening in mid October. Low chilling cultivars
are grown in the Mediterranean region, because of the lack of chilling.
Malatya province at
the East Anatolia region is well known with the best quality of dry apricots.
But also Mut area at the Mediterranean region has a great importance with
the earliest and qualified table apricots which gets a very good price,
in the market. European plums are grown in Marmara, North and Middle Anatolia
and the highlands of the country. Japanese plums are grown at the Mediterranean
and Aegean regions.
Turkey is also famous
with the highest juice quality of sour cherries. The best cultivar is named
as the home city, called Kütahya. Ankara and Afyon provinces are also
the main sour cherry producers. Subtropical fruits are grown at the Mediterranean,
Aegean, Black Sea and some microclimates of South East Anatolia regions.
Çukurova is called as citrus area and all the other subtropical fruits
such as fig, pomegranate, olive, carop, persimmon, loquat are grown. Orange
and lemon are the main citrus fruits in the Mediterranean region but mandarin
is more important at the Aegean region.
Turkey is the member
of CLAM, MESFIN, REMUFRUT and MECINET for the subtropical and tropical fruits.
There is also a very close relationship with FAO, IPGRI, CIRAD, INRA, CIHEAM,
DAAD, etc. Tropical fruits such as banana, avocado, litchi are rarely grown
in our country. Tea is specialised to the Black Sea region with the hazelnut
forests. Hazelnut takes the first place among the nuts and followed by walnut,
pistachio nut, chestnut, almond and pecan nut.
2.2. Genetic Resources
Anatolia is one of the
most important center for the germplasm of many fruit species such as apple,
sweet cherry, apricot, sour cherry, plum (P. cerasifera), almond,
pistachio nut, chestnut, walnut, olive, fig, carop, dogwood pomegranate,
etc.
Citrus, fig, pomegranate,
persimmon, loquat, apple, pear, quince, sweet cherry, apricot, peach, walnut,
almond, pistachio nut, pecan nut germplasm are collected at he University
of Çukurova. FAO and IPGRI are supporting to improve fruit genetic
resources, conservations and utilization. Many accessions of apple, pear,
quince, apricot, plum, sweet cherry, citrus, persimmon, fig, pomegranate,
were investigated. Emphasis is given to collection, and preservation however,
characterisation and evaluation are newly studied subjects for fruits, especially
studies on prunus, almonds and figs are hastened.
2.3. Plant Improvement
In the Mediterranean
region a great amount of work has been done on the evaluation of rootstocks
and inter rootstocks, pest and disease resistance and breeding of citrus.
Apple scab, fusarium, and nematode resistance, on apple, pear, loquat, peach,
strawberry, and apricot; fire blight resistance on pear; rootstock and interstock
evaluation on pome and stone fruits are being investigated. Strawberry breeding,
production techniques, training of apple trees are some other research activities.
A special attention is given to peach breeding for low chilling cultivars
suitable to the subtropical conditions and peach breeding to obtain very
late ripening cultivars, for the highlands of the country.
A strong emphasis is
given to the usage of molecular markers for the identification of sweet
cherry cultivars and early identification of peach and almond hybrids. Biotechnological
tools are used including micro propagation of apple rootstocks, strawberries,
protoplasts fusion studies on rootstocks of citrus (somatic hybrids) and
genotype characterisation of citrus and relatives in partnership with INRA-CIRAD.
Also, yield and photosynthesis activity relationship, carbohydrates and
mineral element contents comparing the different soil types in lemon and
orange are under investigation.
Embrio rescue is made
on the hybrids of early peach cultivars. A study is being carried out with
the collaboration of Ege and Çukurova Universities on the resistance
of the hybrids local almond cultivars to Pseudomonas syringae.
2.4. Propagation/Nursery
In vitro propagation
of several fruit crops such as strawberry, banana, peach, fig, citrus, pear,
apple, etc. are successfully performed. Micro grafting of citrus is another
aspect to work on. A big emphasis is given to virus/bacteria free citrus
production. Also, recently plant certification is a major concern for prunus
and citrus.
2.5. Plant Protection
A great attention is
given to the biological control to citrus leaf miner in citrus, and also
to capnodis in Prunus. Integrated pest management is performed on viruses
and decline diseases of citrus and deciduous fruits. Resistance to Mal Secco
in lemon, rootstock resistance to citrus root rot, and survey experiments
on tristeza, exocortis, impietratura, crinkly leaf and alternaria are under
investigation.
2.6. Integrated Production Systems
Studies on the integrated
field are mainly based on;
- the chilling requirements of temperate zone fruits in subtropical
areas, eco physiological studies on deciduous and subtropical fruits,
- cold resistance studies on citrus (in partnership with INRA-CIRAD)
apple, peach, apricot and almond,
- alternate bearing on pistachio nut, apple and olive,
- flower bud formation and fruit set on strawberries,
- fertilization biology studies on several temperate fruits and fig,
- dormancy breaking experiments on peach and apricots
- carbaryl, NAA and ethrel usage for thinning apple and peach,
- paclobutrazole applications for dwarfing peach, apricot and sweet
cherries,
- promalin applications in young sweet cherry trees for lateral branching
and in pistachio nut trees for alternate bearing,
- utilization of dwarf apple rootstocks combined with high density
plantings,
- protected cultivation of peach, strawberry, and grape for earliness,
- sour cherry, peach, apricot, citrus juice production techniques,
dried apple slices, apricot, fig, grape drying techniques, etc.
2.7. Postharvest
Cold storage, controlled
atmosphere and pre-cooling are the main aspects for post harvest research
mainly on citrus and deciduous fruits especially on apples and pears.
A big emphasis is given
to pre-cooling technology in the Southeastern Anatolia region (GAP area)
under very hot climatic conditions. Ripening experiments on banana and pear
are carried out with ethylene releasing agents. Improvement of harvesting
time and handling techniques are performed on apple, mechanical pruning
techniques on citrus, almonds, and sour cherries are experimented.
2.8. Economics/Marketing
Especially crop management and marketing of citrus are being worked on.
incorporation with CLAM and of deciduous fruits. Irrigation and fertilization
experiments are carried out on citrus. Olive, apple, peach fertilization,
quince/pear, citrus and prunus compatibility experiments are being worked
out. Quince rootstock selection studies for drought resistance and quince
compatibility with pear cultivars are also being carried out.
3. VEGETABLES
3.1. Global Picture
Turkey takes the fourth
place after China, India, and U.S.A in world vegetable production with 4
% (19 million tons). Vegetable production includes 21 % of total plant production
and 62 % of horticultural production of Turkey. Approximately 800 000 hectares
area in the country are used for vegetable production. The geographical
conditions of Turkey let almost all kinds of vegetables to be grown in the
country.
Winter vegetables can
be grown in open field in winter in the mild climates such as Mediterranean,
Aegean and Southeastern Anatolia regions. They can be grown only in summer
months at the higher elevations such as highlands of the Mediterranean,
Middle Anatolia, Marmara and East Anatolia regions.
Protected cultivation
is extended to the coastal lines of Mediterranean (Antalya, Içel,
and Adana) and Aegean (Mu?la, Izmir and Ayd?n) regions.
Total greenhouse potential
of Turkey is in the fourth place in the world after Japan, Italy, and Spain
with 12 000 hectares. The cover material is used as 76 % of plastic and
24 % of glass.
3.2. Genetic Resources
Turkey is the genetic
origin of some vegetables such as lettuce, carrot, melon and radish. Among
the total vegetable production, 45 % of them are Solanacea species (tomato,
pepper, eggplant), and 38 % of them are Cucurbitaceae species (watermelon,
melon, cucumber, squash, and pumpkin). The rest (17%) are the other species.
A great emphasis is given to the germplasm collection, evaluation and characterization
of several vegetables. Mainly, radish, naked pumpkin, squash and leek have
a priority among these cultivar selections.
3.3. Plant Improvement
- Selection studies of radish, naked pumpkin, squash and leek.
- F1 hybrid cultivar breeding on tomato, melon, pepper and
squash, several F1 hybrids
- Cultivar breeding in melon, resistance for Fusariumoxyporum fs.p.
melonis.
- Cultivar breeding in pepper, resistance for Pthopthoracapsici and
potato Y virus and PVY.
- Biotechnological methods to reduce breeding duration in melon by
irradiated pollen and dihaploidization technique in cooperation with
INRA in France.
- Cultivar and genome analysis are being performed in breeding with
DNA finger printing method.
- Somatic embriogenesis and artificial seed techniques are used in
garlic.
- Salt tolerance in melon and pepper is also under investigation.
- Seed propagation is performed at the Seed Production Station in Bal?kesir
and in the Southeastern Anatolia region on tomato, pepper, melon, watermelon,
carot, onion, lettuce and spinach under drip irrigation conditions.
- Substrate culture and nft (nutrient film technique) are being worked
in Aegean region. Organic farming on cucumber, lettuce and tomato.
- Irrigation, fertilization and pruning experiments on eggplant, melon
and tomato.
- Herbicide resistance studies in melon with gene transformation method.
- Determination of Fusarium oxyporum fs.p. niveum races in watermelon
3.4. Propagation/Nursery
The seed production
is performed at the "Seed Production Station" in Bal?kesir by the government
but also imported from the international market by the private sector. A
big emphasis is given to the seed production and the quality enhancement
experiments in the Southeastern Anatolia region by the University of Çukurova..
3.5. Plant Protection
Basic studies on plant
protection on vegetables in Turkey are as follows;
- resistance for PVY in pepper oxysporium fs.p. melonis
- resistance for fusarium in melon and watermelon
- resistance for TYLCV in tomato
- resistance for potato Y virus and PVY.
3.6. Integrated Production Systems
- Flower/fruit set
- Biochemical and molecular characteristics
- Protected cultivation
- Soilless production and hydroponic crops
- Organic agriculture
- Fertilization biology studies on asparagus or sex modification
- Ecophysiological studies for the timing of lettuce and broccoli is
being worked.
- The usage of Bombus terestris as a pollinizer in tomato, pepper and
eggplant.
- Protected cultivation of tomato, pepper, eggplant, cucumber and squash,
at the coastal areas of the Mediterranean and Aegean regions for earliness
and year-round and of-season production.
- Soilless production system is used on cucumber, lettuce and tomato
as substract culture or nft (nutrient film technique).
- Organic farming using bio-organic fertilizers and by biological control
3.7. Post Harvest
Controlled atmosphere storage of melon and mushroom and cold storage of
all other vegetables are under investigation, for quality and food safety.
3.8. Economics And Marketing
The economical analysis of soilless culture is performed in Turkey.
4. ORNAMENTAL
4.1. Global Picture
Turkey is the genetic
origin of many ornamental plants. Most of the ornamental plant production
in Turkey is distributed to the coastal areas of Mediterranean, Aegean and
Marmara regions in which Antalya, Adana, Içel, Izmir and Yalova are
the main centers of the production. Rose, spray carnation, chrysanthemum,
gypsophyla, gladiolus etc. are grown in the valleys, coastal line and the
highlands of the country. The production is mainly in the hands of private
sector. This sector initiated at the Marmara region for the exportations
of cut flowers. Today good quality of cut flowers and ornamental plants
are exported from Antalya (west part of Mediterranean region). This competitive
sector is developing day by day.
4.2. Genetic Resources
Anatolia is also an
origin of many ornamental plants.
Germplasm collection
and conservation has been performed in national parks.
4.3. Plant Improvement
There is not much work on the selection of the ornamental plants. These
studies are newly beginning. Frittillaria imperialis selection studies are
being carried out in the Southeastern Anatolia region. Also, some selection
studies are performed on the forest trees. Breeding is newly beginning.
4.4. Propagation/Nursery
Ornamental plants are propagated by tissue culture as well. Micro propagation
is used in fern, and Saint paulia production. Landscape plants are usually
propagated under in vivo conditions. There is a good production of glayol,
and Lilium candidum.
4.5. Plant Protection
There is a survey on gerbera, for the red mites, fungal diseases, Phtopthora,
nematodes, etc.
4.6. Integrated Production Systems
The following studies are mainly carried out in different institutes;
- protected cultivation of ornamental plants,
- effects of fertilizers, irrigation and climatic factors,
- light and day length effect on the yield, quality, and earliness,
- effect of supplementary irradiation.
4.7. Postharvest
Storage of cut flowers, effects of fertilizers, foliar sprays, irrigation
and growth regulators on the storage of cut flowers, vase-life are the main
subjects to be worked on. Limited studies are carried out on the drying
techniques of flowers, flower extracts for perfume, etc.
4.8. Economics and Marketing
An emphasis is given to the economics of cut flowers, exportation and marketing
of them. Economical analysis of the companies are performed.
5. VITICULTURE
5.1. Global Picture
Major grape potential
of the country is fresh fruits and raisins. Grapes are grown for wine and
juice, processing but less than the others. Grapes are grown almost every
parts of the country on the 560 000 hectares of the area. Turkey's production
is more than 3,5 million tons every year and this important crop has several
institutes dealing with only grapes. Tekirda? Viticulture Institute is one
of them and collection and conservation studies are performed there. The
ampelographical studies of more than 1000 cultivars were made among 1200
grape cultivars.
In the Mediterranean
region the earliest table grapes are grown. In Aegean region, they are mostly
grown for drying. More than 80 % of the grapes are Round seedless and the
others are Thomson seedless.
5.2. Genetic Resources
Since Anatolia is one
of the main origins of grapes, germplasm collection is performed and they
are collected at the Tekirda? Viticulture Institute. An ampelographic study
has been carried out since 1959. Resistance to Powdery mildew, Downy mildew,
Dead arm are being studied.
5.3. Plant Improvement
Breeding techniques
are used especially at Atatürk Research Station and some seedless and
very good quality cultivars have been released since 1990. Selection studies
are performed as clonal selection of good cultivars. Embryo rescue is studied
in intra/interspesific hybridization studies. Also, somaclonal variation
is being worked for resistance to oidium.
5.4. Propagation/Nursery
Tissue culture is used
for clean material propagation. Also, rootstocks are propagated by cuttings
in vivo Conditions.
5.5. Plant Protection
Resistance to disease
and pests has been not worked on yet, but survey studies are performed on
mildew, Botrytis etc.
5.6. Integrated Production Systems
- planting vineyard systems on sloped terrains,
- quality and environmental studies,
- effects of climatic conditions(cold resistance) on yield and quality
- chilling requirements of grapevines, dormancy breaking experiments
- protected cultivation,
- regulation of production season (two crops a year),
- training, pruning systems, thinning, pinching, growth regulators,
- stock/scion relationship,
- nutritional studies.
5.7. Postharvest
It is an important issue
for table grapes and wine in our country. Orange wine is produced at the
University of Çukurova. Oenology is being studied. Also, natural
products and aromas, fermentation, biochemical aspects of fruit quality
are being investigated.
5.8. Economics and Marketing
The economical analysis
of grapes under protected cultivation has been performed. Turkey take the
first place for dry grapes, the second for table grapes, the fifth for the
vineyards, and the sixth for the production in the world. So, a big emphasis
is given to the economical analysis of grape production and exportation.
6. AROMATIC/MEDICINAL PLANTS
6.1. Global Picture
In Turkey aromatic and
medicinal plants are grown almost every part of the country in a big scale.
It has a great importance and cultural value. They play an important role
in traditional herbal medicines and the production of spices and essential
oils for food industry. The quality of the products is high, and demand
is increasing. Private sector is getting more effective in this sector (perfume
or pharmaceutical sector). Aromatic and oil products are used mainly as
flavorings and as fragnance.
Most of the products
of the aromatic and medicinal plants are being exported.
6.2. Genetic Resources
Since the Anatolia is
the origin of many aromatic and medicinal plants, a big emphasis is given
to the collection of these plant materials. Mint, origanum, melissa, and
alkaloid plants are being collected for the conservation. But the collection
and conservation of these plants are very new.
6.3. Plant Improvement
Most of the works have
been carried out for improving of the yield and quality. Studies are performed
on the chemical composition, essential oil content and the components of
them. A selection work was performed on Thymus origanum. There is
no research on the resistance to pest and disease.
6.4. Propagation/Nursery
Propagation of aromatic
and medicinal plants by seeds or vegetative organs are being studied. Tissue
culture is performed very little.
6.5. Plant Protection
There is only two new
studies on the pest damage of medicinal plants.
6.6. Integrated Production Systems
Several experiments
are carried out on irrigation, fertilization, planting distance, timing,
etc.
The effects of planting
time on the effective essential oil content are studied.
Drying of the plants
are being worked on. Aromatic plant + cotton planting on the pest population
experiment has been carried out.
6.7. Postharvest
Most importance is given
to postharvest and processing aspects. Extraction, identification, isolation
of chemicals from selected essential oil crops are also being worked on.
6.8. Economics/Marketing
There is not much work on this aspect.
Table 1. Evaluation of the Institutes of the Ministry of Agriculture
considering the experimental topics
|
Ministry of Agriculture
|
Genetic Resources
|
Breeding
|
Biotechnology
|
Propagation
|
Integrated
Produc.System
|
Post-harvest and Process.
|
Marketing and Econ.
|
Pest and Disease
|
Total
|
Alata Hort. Crops
Res. Institute 3
|
Fruit: 3
|
Fruit: 4
Vegetable: 12
|
-
|
Fruit: 7
Viticulture: 1
|
Fruit: 40
Vegetable : 18
Viticulture : 1
Ornamental: 1
|
Fruit: 3
|
-
|
Fruit: 2
Vegetable: 1
|
Fruit: 59
Veg.: 31
Vitic.: 2
Orn.: 1
|
Antalya Citrus, Greenhouse Res. Institute 5
|
-
|
Fruit: 6
Vegetable : 11
|
-
|
Fruit: 11
Ornamental.: 1
|
Fruit: 29
Vegetable: 86
Ornamental: 5
|
Fruit: 13
|
Fruit: 5
Vegetable: 4
|
Fruit: 37
Vegetable: 6
|
Fruit: 101
Veg.: 107
Orn.: 6
|
Atatürk Hort.
Res. Institute
|
Fruit:6
Vegetable: 14
|
Fruit: 2
Viticulture:13
|
-
|
Fruit: 24
Vegetable: 6
Viticulture: 3
Ornamental: 6
|
Fruit: 52
Vegetable: 40
Viticulture: 16
Ornamental: 20
|
Fruit: 18
Vegetable: 21
Viticulture: 3
Ornamental: 2
|
Fruit: 10
Vegetable: 21
Viticulture: 3
Ornamental: 3
Medicinal: 1
|
Fruit: 12
Vegetable: 11
|
Fruit: 124
Veg.: 119
Vitic.: 39
Orn.: 29
Med.:1
|
Ege Agric. Res. Institute 14
|
Fruit: 21
Vegetable : 5
Ornamental: 4
Medicinal : 2
|
Fruit: 1
Vegetable : 10
Ornamental: 1
|
Fruit: 5
Vegetable : 1
Medicinal : 1
|
Vegetable : 3
Ornamental: 4
|
Fruit: 15
Vegetable: 22
Viticulture: 1
Ornamental: 8
Medicinal: 4
|
-
|
Fruit: 1
Vegetable: 1
Viticulture : 1
Medicinal: 1
|
Fruit: 2
Vegetable: 5
Ornamental: 2
|
Fruit: 45
Veg.: 44
Vitic.: 2
Orn.: 19
Med.: 8
|
Erbeyli Fig
Res. Institute 7
|
Fruit: 2
|
-
|
-
|
Fruit: 1
|
Fruit: 5
|
Fruit: 5
|
Fruit: 2
|
Fruit: 1
|
Fruit: 16
|
Erzincan Hort.
Res. Institute 8
|
-
|
Fruit: 1
|
-
|
Fruit: 1
|
Fruit: 4
Vegetable : 7
|
-
|
-
|
-
|
Fruit: 6
Veg.: 7
|
Hazelnut
Res. Institute 10
|
Fruit: 2
|
Fruit: 1
|
-
|
Fruit: 2
|
Fruit: 22
|
|
Fruit: 4
|
|
Fruit: 31
|
Karadeniz Agr. Res. Inst.
|
-
|
-
|
-
|
-
|
Fruit: 4
Vegetable : 11
Viticulture : 1
|
Vegetable: 1
|
-
|
Vegetable : 6
|
Fruit: 4
Veg.: 18
Vitic.: 1
|
Malatya Fruit Crops Res. Inst.
|
Fruit: 3
|
Fruit: 2
|
-
|
Fruit: 2
|
Fruit: 10
Viticulture: 2
|
Fruit: 1
|
Fruit: 1
|
-
|
Fruit: 19
Vit.: 2
|
Manisa Viticul. Res. Institute 13
|
Viticulture : 1
|
|
Viticulture: 1
|
Viticulture: 29
|
Viticulture: 32
|
Viticulture : 13
|
|
Viticulture: 6
|
Vitic.: 82
|
Olive Research Institute 16
|
Fruit: 1
|
Fruit: 1
|
-
|
Fruit: 14
|
Fruit: 40
|
Fruit: 27
|
Fruit: 4
|
Fruit: 6
|
Fruit: 93
|
Pistachio Nut
Res. Institute 9
|
-
|
Fruit: 2
|
-
|
Fruit: 2
Viticulture : 2
|
Fruit: 27
Viticulture : 3
|
Fruit: 3
|
Fruit: 1
|
-
|
Fruit: 35
Vitic.: 5
|
Tekirdag Vitic. Res. Institute 17
|
-
|
Viticul.ture: 2
|
-
|
Viticulture: 10
|
Viticulture : 24
|
Viticulture: 2
|
Viticulture: 1
|
Viticulture: 1
|
Fruit: 40
|
Table 2. Evaluation of the Departments of Horticulture
of the Universities considering the experimental topics
Departments of Horticulture
|
Genetic Resources
|
Breeding
|
Biotechnology
|
Propagation
|
Integrated
Produc.System
|
Post-harvest and Process.
|
Marketing and Econ.
|
Pest and Disease
|
Total
|
Univ. of
Akdeniz
|
-
|
Vegetable: 1
|
Viticulture: 1
|
Fruit: 3
Vegetable: 2
Ornamental: 6
|
Fruit: 14
Vegetable: 21
Viticulture: 5
Ornamental: 7
|
Fruit: 12
|
Fruit: 5
Ornamental: 1
|
-
|
Fruit: 34
Veg.: 24
Vitic.: 6
Orn.: 14
|
Univ. of
Ankara
|
Viticulture: 1
|
Vegetable: 7
|
Fruit: 1
Viticulture: 2
|
Fruit: 28
Vegetable: 29
Viticulture: 6
|
Fruit: 26
Vegetable: 44
Viticulture: 10
|
Fruit: 6
Vegetable: 21
Viticulture: 3
|
Fruit: 1
Vegetable: 1
|
-
|
Fruit: 62
Veg.: 102
Vitic.: 22
|
Univ. of
Atatürk
|
Fruit: 7
Vegetable: 1
|
Fruit: 1
Vegetable: 1
|
Vegetable: 1
|
Fruit: 18
Vegetable: 2
Viticulture: 1
|
Fruit: 48
Vegetable: 13
Viticulture: 1
|
Fruit: : 1
Viticulture: 1
|
Vegetable: 1
|
|
Fruit: 75
Veg.: 19
Vitic.: 3
|
Univ. of
Çukurova
|
Fruit: 11
Vegetable: 1
Ornamental:1 Medicinal.: 3
|
Fruit: 6
Vegetable: 22
Ornamental: 1
|
Fruit: 16
Vegetable: 7
|
Fruit: 68
Vegetable: 23
Viticulture: 26
Medicinal: 2
Ornamental: 19
|
Fruit: 289
Vegetable: 75
Viticulture: 33
Ornamental:29 Medicinal : 44
|
Fruit: 79
Vegetable : 9
Viticulture: 7
|
Fruit: 23
Vegetable: 6
Viticulture: 2
Medicinal.: 1
Ornamental: 3
|
Fruit: 68
Vegetable: 23
|
Fruit: 560
Veg.: 166
Vitic.: 68
Orn.: 53
Med.: 50
|
Univ. of
Süleyman Demirel
|
-
|
-
|
-
|
Viticulture: 2
Ornamental: 1
|
Fruit: 1
Vegetable: 5
Viticulture: 4
Ornamental: 1
|
-
|
-
|
-
|
Fruit: 1
Veg.: 5
Vitic.: 6
Orn.: 2
|
Univ. of
Sütçü Imam
|
Vegetable: 2
|
Vegetable: 5
|
-
|
Fruit: 2
Vegetable: 1
|
Fruit: 7
Vegetable: 17
Viticulture: 2
|
-
|
Fruit: 1
|
-
|
Fruit: 10
Veg.: 25
Vitic.: 2
|
Univ. of
Trakya
|
Vegetable: 2
|
-
|
-
|
Vegetable: 8
|
Vegetable: 68
|
Vegetable: 2
|
-
|
-
|
Veg.: 80
|
Univ. of
Uludag
|
Fruit: 5
Viticulture: 2
|
Fruit: 2
Vegetable: 3
|
-
|
Fruit: 12
Vegetable: 15
Viticulture: 8
Ornamental: 6
|
Fruit: 27
Vegetable: 17
Viticulture: 8
Ornamental: 7
|
Fruit: 17
Vegetable: 11
Viticulture: 7
Ornamental: 13
|
Vegetable: 1
|
-
|
Fruit: 62
Veg.: 47
Vitic.: 25
Orn.: 26
|
Univ. of
Yüzüncü Y?l
|
Fruit: 12
Vegetable: 1
|
Fruit: 1
|
|
Fruit: 18
Vegetable: 1
Viticulture: 4
|
Fruit: 20
Vegetable: 15
|
Fruit: 2
|
|
|
Fruit: 53
Veg.: 17
Vitic.: 4
|
Univ. of
Çukurova, Pozant?
Agr. Res. Centre
|
Fruit: 2
|
Fruit: 6
Vegetable: 1
|
Fruit: 1
|
Fruit: 2
|
Fruit: 16
Vegetable: 2
Viticulture: 1
Medicinal: 2
|
Fruit: 6
|
-
|
-
|
Fruit: 33
Veg.: 3
Vitic.: 1
Orn.: 2
Med.:2
|
Univ. of Ege
|
Fruit: 3
|
Vegetable: 3
|
Fruit: 2
|
Fruit: 40
Vegetable: 21
Viticulture: 12
|
Fruit: 93
Vegetable: 97
Viticulture: 26
|
Fruit: 12
Vegetable: 1
Viticulture: 1
|
Fruit: 4
Vegetable: 3
|
Fruit: 5
Vegetable: 5
|
Fruit: 159
Veg.: 130
Vitic.: 39
|
Univ. of Harran
|
-
|
-
|
-
|
Fruit: 4
|
Fruit: 21
Vegetable: 11
Viticulture : 1
|
Fruit: 1
|
Fruit: 2
|
-
|
Fruit: 28
Veg.: 11
Vitic.: 1
|
Univ. of Mustafa
Kemal
|
-
|
-
|
-
|
Fruit: 10
Viticulture : 1
|
Fruit: 16
Vegetable: 3
|
|
Fruit: 4
|
-
|
Fruit: 30
Veg.: 3
Vitic.: 1
|
Univ. of Ondokuz May?s
|
Fruit: 3
|
-
|
-
|
Fruit: 14
Vegetable: 5
Viticulture: 13
|
Fruit: 37
Vegetable: 12
Viticulture: 14
|
Fruit: 7
Vegetable: 1
|
Fruit: 2
Vegetable: 5
|
-
|
Fruit: 63
Veg.: 23
Vitic.: 27
|
Univ. of Selçuk
|
Fruit: 3
Viticulture : 1
|
Vegetable: 2
|
-
|
Fruit: 4
Vegetable: 1
Viticulture : 2
|
Fruit: 11
Vegetable: 13
Viticulture: 6
|
Fruit: 1
|
Viticulture: 2
|
-
|
Fruit: 19
Veg.: 16
Vitic.: 11
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
Green - Seeds Co., Ltd.
81/10B Ho Van Hue Street, Phu Nhuan District, Ward 9, Ho Chi Minh City, Vietnam
Tel: +84 (8) 847 6901 - Fax: +84 (8) 844 1392 - Email: info@green-seeds.com
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