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Green-seeds.com:
publications & research: articles
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MOROCCAN HORTICULTURAL INDUSTRY
Prof. M. El-Otmani
Prof. A. Ait-Oubahou
Institut Agronomique et Vétérinaire Hassan II - Complexe
d'Agadir, BP. 18/S Agadir, Morocco
Tel : 212 8241006-240155 Fax :212 8 242243
E-mail chagadir@mtds.com
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Introduction
 With
its Mediterranean climate, Morocco has a potential to produce a wide
range of crops ranging from temperate species in the Atlas mountains
to tropical and subtropical crops along the Atlantic coast and the
Souss Valley near the city of Agadir. Two different sectors compose
the horticulture industry of Morocco : a traditional sector with a
large number of small farmers and a modern sector of large producers.
The former represent the dominant portion of growers with low technology
and the production is mainly for domestic and local consumption, while
the latter sector with a modern technology is export-oriented.
The
climate and the geographical situation as well as the existing natural
resources constitute the main advantages of Moroccan horticultural
industry. Morocco has a potential to produce when the European countries
cannot. Economically, Moroccan produce can stay competitive if productivity
and quality in different horticultural sectors is improved.
Private
sector is the main actor in developing export crops and marketing
strategies. Although the country has a large potential in developing
a wide range of produce for domestic as well for export, few crops
have received an interest both from producers and exporters. The main
markets for fresh produce of Morocco remain }Europe with a large percentage
going to France.
Organizations
such as trade associations (chambers of commerce, chambers of agriculture)
are also participating in the agriculture policy of the country. Growers
are also organized into associations such as ASPAM (Citrus growers
and exporters), ASPEM (Vegetables growers and exporters) and APEFEL
(Fruit and vegetables growers and exporters). The EACCE (Etablissement
Autonome de Contrôle et de Coordination des Exportations) is
a state organization in charge of quality control. This control takes
place at ports for sea shipments or in packinghouses for products
exported by air or trucks. This institution is also responsible for
setting sanitary and quality standards and assumes the coordination
of export contingents. EACCE also has the authority power to deliver
permits for operating new packinghouses as well as using new packaging
materials for export products.
Regarding
research, education and outreach activities, Morocco has a number
of institutions of higher education (MSc and Ph.D. levels) such as
the Institut Agronomique et Vétérinaire Hassan II (IAV
Hassan II) and Ecole Nationale d'Agriculture and a research institution
named the Institut National de la Recherche Agronomique (INRA). INRA
is a large institution of research on different agricultural crops.
Extension activities are carried out by the regional and rural organizations
called Directions Provinciales d'Agriculture (DPA) or Offices Régionaux
de la Mise en Valeur Agricole (ORMVA). These institutions and their
activities will be discussed elsewhere in this report.
Research programs
in the field of horticulture are diverse and several aspects concerning
means of increasing yield and reducing production costs for several
crops have been studied. Certainly, Moroccan institutions, just like
their counterparts in many countries suffer from lack of funds to
conduct adequate research and keep up with advanced technologies.
As it will be pointed out in this report, many institutions have invested
in laboratories and other facilities to make the Moroccan products
competetive at the market level. 
Horticulture situation
A. Fruit Industry
During the last 5 years, surface areas as well as fruit production
fruit acreage as well as production have not changed much. Total fruit
producing area is about 175 000 ha for a total production of about
650 000 tons all fruits combined. Fruits are produced in all different
areas of the country. The climate of Morocco is suitable for a wide
range of crops from tropical and subtropical to temperate crops. Species
with high chilling requirements are produced at high altitudes in
the Atlas mountains, while dates are produced mainly in the southern
parts of the country (oases in the desert). Limited quantities of
peaches and strawberries are exported as early crops. Dates are produced
largely in the desert oasis. The country is importing few quantities
during the months of Ramadan (fasting month) to respond to the increasing
demand for good quality crop. Citrus fruits and limited processed
fruits such as olives and apricots are exported. Aspects related to
production will be discussed elsewhere. Table 1 shows production areas
for a number of fruit crops.
Table 1. Area and total production for a number of fruit crops
produced in Morocco in 1990 and 1996.
Fruit
|
Number of (.000 ha) |
Total production (.000 tons) |
|
|
1990
|
1995
|
1990
|
1995
|
Almonds
|
110.0
|
126.0
|
70.0
|
30.0
|
Apples
|
22.0
|
26.5
|
248.8
|
230.0
|
Apricots
|
13.9
|
14.6
|
92.2
|
50.0
|
Bananas
|
2.8
|
2.5
|
100.0
|
90.0
|
Citrus
|
72.7
|
74.7
|
1468.0
|
994.0
|
Dates
|
85.0
|
85.0
|
100.0
|
95.0
|
Grapes
|
50.1
|
51.0
|
259.0
|
180.0
|
Olives
|
360.0
|
444.0
|
550.0
|
450.0
|
Peach/Nect.
|
3.5
|
4.1
|
25.0
|
29.0
|
Pears
|
3.0
|
3.4
|
30.9
|
30.0
|
Plums
|
6.6
|
7.5
|
40.9
|
40.0
|
Quince
|
2.4
|
2.8
|
24.5
|
20.0
|
1. Deciduous fruit crops
Most of the deciduous fruits are produced for local consumption. Yields
are very low and due to the dominance of small growers with very traditional
techniques for production. Small growers generally encounter many
problems related to plant material, cultural practices and shortage
of water and land. The majority of deciduous fruit are produced in
irrigated areas, except for almond, olive and fig trees which are
also produced in areas with sufficient rainfall during the critical
stages of fruit development and vegetative growth.
Plant material
Morocco
has produced in 1993 over 43 millions trees (DPVCTRF, 1993) distributed
as follows : 29% olives, 26% various deciduous species, 12% citrus,
11% forest trees and the remaining 22% made of grapes and ornamentals.
The number varies according to the demand and the incentive procedures
(subsidization of new plantations and reforestation) of the government.
Therefore,
more than 500 nurseries in the country and produce grafted trees of
a wide range of fruit species. Most of these nurseries do not have
an appropriate infrastructure for producing certified trees. Produced
trees are often not well controlled for authenticity and for sanitary
conditions. For these reasons, large growers have a tendency to import
plant material from Europe and the USA. Imported material is either
grafted and rooted trees or just scion budwood that is grafted on
a locally produced rootstock.
During
the 1994 season, the number of deciduous trees produced was 14.1 million
from which 57% were of stone fruit and 43% were of pome fruit species.
Different
institutions are involved in different research aspects of production
of plant material such as selection, certification and propagation.
INRA, DPVCTRF and SODEA are heavily involved in these aspects. INRA
and SODEA have plant collection of various varieties and also laboratories
for propagation and certification. Aspects under investigation in
these institutions include:
I. Selection of new cultivars or rootstocks with good performance
in Morocco (e,g. peach Missour)
II. Identification and selection of new strains with low chilling
requirements
III. Selection of early varieties of peaches
IV. Disease and calcareous resistant rootstocks
V. Development of new techniques of propagation and mainly micro-grafting
of several pome fruits
VI. Selection of new rootstocks or varieties through somaclonal varaition
VII. Molecular biology tests to identify individual trees that can
support different climatic condition
VIII. Introduction and evaluation of new cultivars and species under
different environmental conditions.
Diseases and pests
As
in many other areas of the world, several diseases and pests can be
found in Moroccan orchards. Most of the planted species are sensitive
to various fungi and bacteria. Nematodes constitute a problem in some
areas for peach production in the area of Souss-Massa. Some of the
diseases occur in the field while others in the market and storage.
Research
institutions in Morocco are working closely with growers on ways of
reducing the incidence of these pathogens and disorders both preharvest
and postharvest. During storage, most of the pathogens are of the
fungus type and cause great damage. Pathogens occurring on some fruits
include :
I. Blue mold caused by Penicillium expansum
II. Gray mold due to Botrytis cinerea.
For stone fruits, the main diseases are :
I. Brown rot caused by Monilinia fructicola
II. Rhizopus rot caused by Rhizopus stolonifer
III. Gray and blue mold respectively caused by Botrytis cinerea
and Penicillium sp.
IV. Sour rot caused by Geotrichum candidum
V. Alternaria rot caused by Alternaria sp.
Most
of the research conducted in different institutions has focused on
means of prevention and controlling the appearance of these pathogens.
Approaches are diverse and can be summarized in the following :
I. Identification and determination of the pathogens
II. Understanding of the main factors that hasten or arrest the development
of the pathogen and the disease
III. Development of a preventive approach for control
IV. Determination of appropriate method to control the pathogen (chemical,
physical or biological).
V. For nematodes, research focuses on chemical treatments, cultural
practices as well as biological control
VI. Impose a quarantine program for importation of trees
VII. Identification and development of means to reduce the incidence
of rot roots caused by several pests such as Anoxia orientalis
Insects
cause heavy damage to stone fruit industry (eg. apricot and peach
fruits) both preharvest and postharvest . Mediteranean fruit fly is
known for fruit losses that cause every year in many crops. The list
of insects is long and their incidence varies following environmental
conditions and cultural practices. Different approaches are followed
to reduce the insect impact on these crops. Some of these strategies
will be discussed elsewhere.
Disorders
Fruit
disorders appear either in the field and can thus be removed at harvest
or after storage. These disorders can be due to abiotic (hail, freezing
temperatures, heat, mineral nutrition etc.) or biotic factors (insects,
birds, fungus) factors.
Research
has focused on means of controlling these disorders such :
I. Mineral nutrition diagnosis and soil and leaf analysis
II. Calcium treatments (against bitter pit in apples for example)
III. Forecast of climatic conditions
IV. Means of reducing postharvest disorders and losses
Integrated production systems
Yields
of different deciduous fruits are still quite low as shown in table...
The improvement of the situation needs more effort in solving problems
that limit our orchard productivity. Institutions of research and
development currently involved in this field are investigating the
following areas:
I. Plant density for different cultivars for different situations
II. Pruning systems according to different plant densities
III. Water requirement irrigation systems
IV. Impact of water stress during the fruit development cycle on fruit
and tree growth and total production
V. Studies on tree behavior under different soil and climate conditions
VI. Trials on production of peaches under plastic covers
VII. Mineral nutrition studies (type of fertilizers, mode of application
and timing)
VIII. Methods of diagnosis of soil, water and leaf analysis as tools
for determining plant needs and fertilization programs.
Postharvest technologies
Deciduous
fruits are generally sold in the local market. Large growers use modern
tehniques to package and handle the fruits. While, small farmers do
not have enough knowledge and technology for this crop.
Research has focused
on finding means of reducing postharvest losses and ways of preserving
fruit quality. This include storage techniques and
2. Citrus
Citrus
fruits represent the first crop in tonnage which is exported from
Morocco. An average of 500 to 600 thousand tons are exported fresh
mostly to Europe. Plantations of citrus cover more than 74 000 ha
for an annual production raging from 0.9 to 1.4 million tons. The
variability in production is due to several factors that include ;
sanitary conditions (gommosis and virus diseases), aging (over 55%
of plantations are more than 20 years old and 8 to 10% have over 40
years of age), cultural practices (a limiting factor among the small
growers) and drought. Drought is severe some areas such as the Souss
Valley. These factors and others have a direct impact on both quality
and quantity of production.
A
general survey on citrus production was conducted in 1991. A general
picture of the situation of Moroccan citrus industry was developed
and major problems that limit its productivity were identified.
Research
activities on citrus are diverse and include all aspects that contribute
to the improvement of the productivity and quality.
Plant propagation and selection
Three
varieties of citrus (clementine mandarin and Washington navel and
Valencia late oranges) represent more than 85% of both total plantations
and production. Nowadays the tendency, worldwide, is to produce varieties
of medium size fruits and of the easy peeler types.
Morocco
has succeeded in the development and selection of several cultivars.
Among the new varieties of the clementine mandarin type are ; Bekria,
Nour, Sidi Aissa, Afourer and Ain Taoujdate.
These
new clones are the results of a selection program of both the public
(INRA) and the semi-public (SODEA) institutions. Several of these
clones are now commercially available. These mandarins allow an extension
of the harvesting period from September to February and bring good
prices for the production.
Similarly,
for orange type varieties, several nucellar clones have been selected
and are now commercially cultivated.
Other
aspects related to plant improvement program concern the introduction
and a selection of different rootstocks that have resistance to major
diseases and are tolerant to environmental condition particularly
since most of the citrus plantations in Morocco are under sour orange.
The latter is known to be very sensitive to Tristeza and thus any
introduction of the disease to the country will devastate citrus groves.
Pests and diseases
According
to the 1991 survey, citrus groves in Morocco are relatively free from
serious diseases.
However,
in few areas, problems related to Phytophthora spp and virus diseases
such as exocortis and psorosis can be found and contribute to reduced
yield of several orchards.
I. Methods of propagation of certified plants free of diseases are
commercially used
II. Some private nurseries are not equipped with adequate material
for producing health plants.
From
producers point of view, insects are the main problems which seriously
affect the quality of the production of their trees. Special attention
was given by entomologists to specific insects that have a direct
impact on the orchard productivity. Among these insects :
I. Mediterranean fruit fly (Ceratitis capitata)
II. California red scale
III. Mites
IV. Citrus leafminer (recently introduced to Morocco).
These
insects require multiple applications of chemicals during a long period
of the fruit cycle. In some areas of the Souss Valley for example
as many as 8 to 10 applications are sometimes necessary in order to
protect fruits from insect attacks.
In
addition to chemical treatments, other approaches have been developed
including biological control and integrated pest management techniques.
The latter approach is underway in specific localities where some
predators have been released. In addition to introduced predators
from the USA and Australia, local parasitoids have been identified.
Postharvest
decay of fruits have received attention from reserachers as well as
exporters and packers. The main diseases are:
I. Blue mold due to Penicilium italicum
II. Green mold caused by Penicillium digitatum
III. Phytophthora rot caused by Phytophthora sp.
IV. Sour rot due to Geotrichum candidum
V. Other diseases can cause severe damage of harvested crop.Among
the major causes Alternaria rot caused by Alternaria citri
and stem end rot caused by Diplodia nataliensis.
Many
of these pathogens are controlled chemically or using appropriate
cultural practices and harvesting procedures.
During
the recent years an important program of biological control was undertaken
in Morocco. This program aims to develop an integrated approach to
control citrus diseases and to reduce use of chemical treatments.
Integrated production systems
Since
the mid 80's an extensive replanting program was undertaken and research
aspects dealt with :
I. Planting densities. The tendency in export oriented groves is planting
at high densities system ranging from 500 to 1000 trees per ha.
II. Determination of type and time of pruning.
III. Pruning and training of new varieties under different planting
densities and different climatic conditions. Late varieties of citrus
are not pruned the same way than the mid season and early maturing
varieties.
Irrigation
and fertilizer applications are necessary for citrus production. Most
of the groves are irrigated either from wells or from dams. Pumping
water is becoming more and more expensive as the level of the water-table
is decreasing continuously and has already reached 150 m deep in many
areas of the country. Attention is now given to management of this
natural resource. The government is encouraging the use of micro-irrigation
and other methods that can contribute to reducing excessive use of
water for irrigation.
Micro-irrigation
and fertigation are replacing irrigation by furrow or basin around
the trunk of trees. However, despite the efficiency of drip or micro-sprinkler
technologies, the methods are still limited to few modern groves.
Research topics related to this aspect consist of :
I. Determining the amount of water required and irrigation system
to be used for optimum production
II. Optimization of micro-irrigation systems in different soils
Mineral
nutrition has been studied intensively as serious mineral deficiencies
are observed in some orchards. Moroccan soils have a relatively high
pH (7 to 9).
Topics
that have received attention are :
I. Methods of diagnosis for different nutrients
II. Adoption of simple techniques to predict tree nutritional status
III. Influence of different micro and macro elements on tree productivity.
IV. Foliar supply of nutrients
Salinity
in the soils can be a limiting factor for production of citrus. In
Morocco, with the recent years of drought and heavy pumping of underground
water led to a significant increase of salinity in many areas of the
country (mainly Berkane in the Northeast and the Souss in the South).
Aspects related to this situation and its impact on the productivity
of citrus groves have been studied.
As
for salinity, calcareous soils can limit tree production. Some rootstocks
that are tolerant to tristeza are sensitive to calcareous soils. Searching
for other rootstocks is another priority of research for plant improvement.
Controlling
flowering, fruit set, fruit size and quality are of major importance.
These parameters have received attention for several years :
I. Several studies have been conducted to understand mechanisms and
factors that control flower initiation and differenciation of various
cultivars.
II. Application of growth regulators and other natural compounds to
improve fruit set of seedless varieties.
III. Means of controlling flowering and reducing alternate bearing
of clementine
IV. Use of growth regulators to control vegetative growth and stimulate
fruit production
V. Foliar application of macro and micro-elements during flowering
or fruit growth and its impact of fruit development and final size.
Postharvest
As
most of the production is exported, a good infrastructure for export
has been developed within major areas of production and around the
ports of Agadir, Casablanca and Nador. Over 70 packinghouses in the
country are specialized in handling and packing citrus fruits. Packing
stations are distributed between Souss, Casablanca and Berkane. Packaging
equipment and materials are either imported or locally made.
Despite
the existing infrastructure and technologies, Morocco has not made
use of newer technologies of postharvest handling, transportation
and storage. Among the aspects investigated by researchers:
I. Determination of guidelines to predict time of harvesting
II. Development of maturity and harvesting indices for different varieties
III. Adoption of new techniques for harvesting and handling of fruits
IV. Impact of different handling practices on fruit quality
V. Improvement of fruit transportation to packinghouses
VI. Optimization of degreening operation for clementine fruit
VII. Design and construction of packinghouses
VIII. Control of the machinery (grading, sizing, pack-out fruits...).
IX. Use of different treatments and means to reduce postharvest losses
due to pathogens (waxing, biological control....).
X. Determination of approaches to optimize packinghouse conditions
(sanitation, disinfestation...).
XI. Optimization of storage conditions (temperature, humidity, ventilation,
treatments...)
XII. Improvement of fruit transportation (domestic and export)
XIII. Design and optimization of packaging materials
XIV. Implementation of appropriate technologies for postharvest handling
of fruits.
XV. Control of pesticide residue analyses
XVI. Evaluation and determination of causes of discarded fruits in
packinghouses
3. Dates
Morocco has more than 85.000 ha of date palm planted with about 4.5
million trees corresponding to an average density of 53 trees/ha.
The annual production is around 100.000 tons/years. This indicates
that yields are very low with the dominance of poor quality varieties.
As most of the dates are produced in oases in the desert, this crop
has suffered from drought and a disease called « Bayoud »
caused by Fusarium oxysporum f. sp. albedenis.
Plant material
Date
palm is propagated vegetatively by offshoots but also easily by seeds.
This latter technique should be avoided as it induces many variations
due to heterozygous plants. The use of seeds has led to the production
of a large population of trees and a number of different clones with
poor quality.
Moroccan
soils are infested with a soil borne pathogen which cause the disease
«Bayoud ». During the last 50 years the disease has destroyed
more than 2/3 of the palm tree population. Varieties which produce
good fruits are very sensitive to the disease while many varieties
with poor quality fruits are tolerant. Research on date palm has focused
on :
I. Selection of resistant varieties to the 'Bayoud' disease (clone
3014 was selected as a resistant to bayoud and has good fruit quality).
II. Selection of varieties with good yield and fruit quality
III. Conduct surveys and field visits to locate plants with desirable
characteristics.
IV. Development of techniques of micro-grafting (still in its early
stages of research)
V. Development and optimization of propagation by tissue culture
Diseases and pests
Date
palm is attacked by a number of pathogens such as bacteria and fungi.
As stated above, Fusarium oxysporum is the major disease of
this species. Insects cause also severe problems both preharvest and
postharvest. No chemical treatment are used on date palm. Research
areas include:
I. Use of biochemical techniques to identify and characterize bayoud
resistant strains of palm trees
II. Breeding program in order to produce trees with high fruit quality
and good resistance to bayoud
III. Reducing the incidence of the Bayoud disease by using antagonists
of fusarium sp. albedenis and by using soils unfavorable
to the spreading of the disease.
IV. Understanding of the biological cycle of mites, insects that attack
dates in storage
V. Use of predators to control Parlatoria scale
VI. Investigations on carb moth, Ectomyelois ceratoniae, its impact
on fruit in storage
VII. Trials of different insecticides on pre and postharvest.
Other cultural practices
Date
palm is mostly produced traditionally and the production is geared
to local consumption. Depending of the area, there are varieties that
are well accepted by the farmers. Many of these varieties are very
sensitive to « Bayoud ». All cultural practices are executed
manually.
Not
many studies have been done in relation to cultural practices. More
research is needed in :
I. Planting spacing and density
II. Improving pollination techniques
III. Water requirement, period and system of irrigation
IV. Fertilizers application (type and timing)
V. Training systems as individual or group of plants
VI. Studies on pollination and characterization of type of pollen
for different varieties
VII. Protection of date palm tree and fruit from various insects and
diseases
Postharvest
Postaharvest
aspects have received little attention for several years. The research
now underway concerns :
I. Determination of harvesting and maturity indices
II. Development of quality standards
III. Development of new techniques for harvesting fruits according
to the variety
IV. Evaluation of the impact of different harvesting methods on fruit
quality and postharvest shelflife
V. Improving postharvest handling (packaging, transport...)
VI. Evaluation of methods of storage of dates
VII. Use of heat treatment for fruit desinfestation
VIII. Development of approaches for drying and conditioning fruits
4. Olive trees
With its mediterranean climate, Morocco has good potential for olive
production. Olive trees can be found in different regions of the country.
Two distinct sectors can be found in the country, one produces under
rainfed areas in the Northern parts of the country and the second
produces under irrigation. Total area of olive tree plantations is
over 370 000ha. Two varieties are produced : Picholine marocaine (80%)
and Picholine de Languedoc (about 18%). Most of the groves are of
small acreage, generally less than 10 ha. Few large groves are modern.
Olive research is carried out mainly by INRA. It appears from their
estimates that more than 80% of olive trees receive no special care.
Some aspects that are studied include :
Plant material
I. Clonal selection within the existing local varieties
II. Understanding the behavior of different varieties as well as the
phenomenon of alternate bearing of olive trees
III. Development of in-vitro propagation
IV. Improving vegetative propagation in containers
Pests, diseases and disorders
Olive trees are susceptible to a large number of pathogens and insects.
These pests reduce both growth and production. The main pests that
cause heavy damage include ; olive moth, psyle, scolyte and olive
fly. Undergoing research consists of :
I. Understanding biological cycle of the pests
II. Development of methods of determination of when to intervene (threshold
levels).
III. Means of control of pests and pathogens
IV. Studies on the use of biological control such as the use of Bacillus
thuringiensis to control the olive moth.
V. Control of rot of the roots caused by Armillaria mellea pathogen
VI. Identification of growth of pests such as Dacus olea, Prays
oleae
Integrated production systems
Moroccan olive industry as for other sectors suffer from low yield
fruit and quality of the production. Improvement of the grove productivity
requires :
I. Introduction and adoption of new methods of production
II. Development of means for improving fruit production and quality
III. Reducing alternate bearing
IV. Optimization of planting density and production systems
V. Determination of adequate timing and appropriate systems of irrigation
of olive trees.
VI. Use of fertilizers (type, quantity, timing and fractionation).
VII. Optimization of pruning techniques for olive trees in irrigated
areas
VIII. Foliar applications of fertilizers and growth regulators to
control flowering and improve fruit production and quality
Postharvest aspects
Time of harvesting and handling techniques of fruits vary according
to fruit destination. Existing olive processing and oil extraction
units are traditional. Many crushing methods are still artisanal with
low quality product. Very few units are of the modern type.
Research related to postharvest aspects include :
I. Determination of maturity indices for harvesting olives for different
varieties and destination
II. Development of methods for harvesting of fruits
III. Improving methods of extraction of oil and methods of controlling
quality
IV. Optimization of storage conditions of olive fruits
5. Grapes
Grapes
production has changed quite a lot since the independence of the country.
Actually the total area of production of both table and wine grapes
covers over 50,000 ha. More than 75% is for table grapes. In contrast,
Morocco has 70,000 ha in 1970 reserved for wine grapes.
Plant
material
For
grapes most of research activities concern :
I. Propagation techniques for new cultivars and rootstocks
II. Identification of cultivars that suit different climates of the
country
III. Search for rootstocks with resistance to different soils as well
as for drought
IV. Search for rapid techniques to identify diseases and quarantine
pathogens and insects during the introduction of new plant material
V. Development of new techniques to produce disease free plants
VI. Development of substrates as well as rooting conditions for grapes
Pests,
diseases and disorders
Research
activities on grapes concern ;
I. Identification and understanding of the pathogens
II. Assess the importance of these attacks on fruit production and
quality
III. Development of means to reduce their incidence
IV. Understand environmental conditions and other factors that favors
disease development
Cultural
practices
Many
grapes groves are rain fed. This situation increase the effect of
drought on both production and quality. Yields are very low due to
different factors related to cultivars as well as to cultural practices.
Research deals with the following aspects :
I. Studies of the behavior and quality production of new cultivars
under Moroccan conditions
II. Effect of planting densities and trellising systems on the production
III. Determination of irrigation requirements and timing of irrigation
IV. Impact of different systems of irrigation on the production and
fruit quality
V. Determination of mineral nutrition of plants according to area
of production, system of irrigation and fruit destination
VI. Develop guidelines to help growers to optimize fruit production
Postharvest
Postharvest
aspects that need more attention comprise ;
I. Understanding of maturity indices
II. Introducing new methods of harvesting and handling
III. Studies related to fruit physiology and biochemistry
IV. Determination of storage conditions of different varieties
V. Assess the conditions of Modified and Controlled Atmospheres on
fruit quality
VI. Studies on biological control of postharvest decay
6. Banana
Morocco
have introduced the production of banana under plastic shelters since
1980. Before that date, local production was very limited to small
areas in open fields. Total area did not exceed 100 ha for 5 to 1000
tons of fruits with low quality. Until 1977, Morocco imported annually
about 30,000 tons of fruits from Central America and Africa. Area
of greenhouse production has increased from 5 ha in 1982 to over 3,000
ha in 1993. This increased is due to many factors on incitation and
protection that the government has imposed during that period.
Plant
material
Introduction
of banana under greenhouses has required a demand on plant material
for new plantations. Morocco has to import new varieties such as Grande
Naine, Williams, Poyo or Robusta. New introduction requires :
I. Development of micro-propagation techniques to respond as quick
as possible to increasing demand
II. Production of disease free plants
III. Reduction of mutation in tissue culture plants
Pests,
disease and disorders
Banana
has many diseases both in open fields or under plastic greenhouses.
Nematodes, bacteria and different fungi species cause problems and
reduce significantly fruit production. In order to reduce their incidence,
different studies have been conducted :
I. Search for new means to reduce nematode infestation
II. Evaluation of solarization, biological control and methyl bromide
treatment on production and nematode population
III. Use of different plants to reduce the population of nematode
IV. Develop guidelines to chemical treatments to control nematodes
V. Use of non infested soils and soils with characteristics that limit
nematode spreading
VI. Identification of different pathogens that attack the plant (leaf,
pseudostem or fruit bunch)
VII. Development of means to reduce their incidence
Cultural
practices
Banana
production under cover requires a particular attention for good production.
Research investigations include :
I. Planting densities
II. Time of selection of followers
III. Control of environmental conditions inside the plastic greenhouse
IV. Irrigation systems and determination of water requirements
V. Determination of plant nutrition and its control
VI. Mode and time of applications
VII. Understanding of other techniques that influence plant productivity
Harvesting
and postharvest
Harvesting
and handling bananas are of great importance to maintain good quality
fruits. Fruits are harvested and transported as bunches rather than
separate hands. Ripening is done in traditional room using acetylene
gas. These conditions are not favorable for good quality product.
Thus research is interested in :
I. Determination of harvesting indices
II. Different handling systems and the quality of produce
III. Optimization of fruit ripening using appropriate conditions of
temperature, ethylene etc.
IV. Storage conditions of banana
V. Fruit disorders after storage
VI. Physiological and biochemical aspects of fruit
B. Vegetables
As
indicated above, Morocco's climate allows for production of early
(winter) vegetable crops. The mild winters are suitable for both open
field as well as under cover plastic greenhouses. Vegetable production
under plastic houses, floating and row covers is continuously increasing.
Different structures and shapes of shelters are available.
Morocco
produces annually over 3million tons of fresh vegetables. A large
part of the produced crops is for the domestic market and for processing.
Many Crops are produced in open fields and include tomatoes, potatoes,
carrots, eggplants, beans, peas, onions etc. Total area covered with
vegetables was 206 000 and 168 000 ha respectively for 1990 and 1995.
The corresponding productions were respectively 3.7 and 2.5 million
tons for the same years. In 1990 An average of 300.000 tons of vegetables
are exported. Among the exported produce, tomato is by far the largest
crop with an average of 150.000 per year followed by potatoes (100.000
to 140.000 tons).
Yields
are generally low and this constitutes the main reason for low productivity.
Even though farm labor is available at low cost, small growers which
constitute a large portion of our vegetable farmers suffers from lack
of technical know how, and of advanced technologies and production
practices. However, this cannot be generalized as some producers are
using the latest technologies for production.
Plant
material
For
exported crops, most of the plant material (seeds and tubers) are
imported. Selected varieties of different crops are used according
to market of destination. Small farmers are mostly using local varieties.
Seed production of vegetables is not well developed in Morocco and
constitute a weak point within the chain of production. Research topics
have focused on :
I. Means of controlling quarantine pathogens
II. Quick approach to detect seed contamination with bacteria and
fungi
III. Develop appropriate techniques for seedling production (substrate
media, seeding methods etc...)
IV. Grafting studies of tomato and melon
V. Optimization of micro-tuber production for potato propagation
Pests
and diseases
Several
pests and diseases are found in Morocco. The relative incidence and
the importance of attacks vary among growers and also according to
the type of crop. Nematode infestation has become a serious problem
in several areas of the country mainly in the sandy soils along the
Atlantic coast. In the area of Massa in the south, a major area of
early production, soil fumigation and desinfestation is necessary
for vegetable production. Alternatives include use of resistant varieties
and rootstocks, biological treatments. During the last two years,
the trend is for the use of plants grafted onto resistant rootstocks.
These rootstocks are used for tomatoes, cucumbers and melons. Both
fumigation as well as grafting are expensive methods that increase
production costs. Reserach activities have been concentrated on means
of controlling these problems. Among the topics related to these aspects
we have:
I. Optimization of methods of controlling nemtode infestation (soil
fumigation, solarization, biological control...
II. Studies on rootstock use on sandy soils for sensitive varieties
to soil borne pathogens and pests
III. Investigation on stage and conditions of transplanting of seedlings
to the field
IV. Development of an integrated pest management approach to reduce
the incidence of different pathogens and pests
Integrated
production systems
Yields
of several vegetable crops are still very low due to lack of adequate
plant material and poor production practices. During the last decade,
there is a growing interest in improved techniques and technologies.
Now for export the tomato is produced mainly under plastic greenhouses.
More than 5000 ha are covered. These shelters allow good protection
and favorable conditions for production. Both the production and the
quality are improved in comparison to open-field systems. Irrigation
is necessary for vegetable production and water comes from wells and/or
dams. The dominant practice is furrow irrigation. However, new advanced
systems of using irrigation drip, sprinklers, trickle and microjet
are now commonly used in greenhouses for tomatoes, peppers, eggplants
and other crops. Other practices such as fertigation, integrated pest
management are becoming common in several farms.
Despite
the improvement of applied techniques and technologies for production,
more research and extension activities are needed and current research
activities are in the areas of :
I. Optimization of the greenhouse construction and design according
to the crops and the climatic conditions of each region of the country
II. Computer-aided management and controlled greenhouse environmental
conditions
III. Determination of cultural practices from planting densities to
harvest
IV. Assessment of irrigation systems and determination of water requirements
of different crops
V. Development of approaches to control mineral nutrition disorders
on fruits and to prevent deficiences
VI. Optimization of irrigation and fertigation methods and development
of means to control this technique
VII. Improvement of pollination, pruning and trellising of crops under
greenhouses
Postharvest
aspects
As
most of the vegetable products are highly perishable, good postharvest
techniques must be employed to attain appropriate quality. Research
has focused on :
I. Understanding factors that affect fruit quality of the produce
II. Determination of guidelines and maturity and harvest indices for
different crops
III. Understanding the effect of harvest, handling and transportation
on fruit postharvest quality
IV. Studies related to protect fruits from pathogens and postharvest
disorders
V. Assess modern technologies such as Modified and Controlled Atmospheres
for storage and transit
VI. Studies of different means of preserving fruit quality (use of
coatings, different physical treatments to reduce injuries and disorders)
These
studies aim to attain minimum quality standards required and imposed
for export crops. These standards must meet the requirements imposed
by the importer market. All crops are checked either at the packinghouse
station or at the port. Quality analyses are performed both at harvest
and at the checking points. The standards parameters include sensorial
and organoleptic characteristics as well as sanitary and pesticide
residues. Exporters must meet the minimum required before receiving
a permit for shipment.
For domestic markets,
there are no defined quality standards for a large number of fruits
and vegetables. The Ministry of Agriculture is developing a list of
parameters for quality control within the country. These standards
will contribute to the development of this sector.
C. Floriculture and ornamentals
More
than 90% of produced cut flowers are exported to Europe. The climate
of the country allows production of wide range of high quality flowers
during the time the european needs heating to produce inside greenhouses.
At open fields the average number of cut flowers per hectare is about
100 000 flowers, while under greenhouses it can reach as high as 300
000 stems per hectare. Awide range of flowers are produced.
Plant
material
The
industry of ornamentals and flowers depend on the needs in the European
markets. Therefore the plant material is totally imported. Research
on floriculture is not well developed although the needs for good
results to help the growers exist.
I. Trials on new varieties
II. Development of varieties for local market and for industry
III. Selection of varieties resistant to different diseases and insects
Pests
and diseases
I. The research on the pests of flowers is geared to identify and
optimize means of controlling the development of these pathogens
II. Develop guidelines to solve some problems encountered during the
production as well as postharvest
III. Reduce the use of chemicals to control plant diseases
Cultural
practices and production systems
Producing
good quality flowers needs experience and know-how. Only few growers
can produce flowers free of diseases and disorders. Research is interested
in :
I. Optimizing the conditions of producing good quality of flowers
II. Enhance and search for earliness productions
III. Optimize water requirements and find adequate systems for production
IV. Use of fertigation and heating systems for some varieties
Postharvest
systems
Flowers
needs a great care from harvesting to destination :
I. Adoption of appropriate methods to handle flowers
II. Determination of conditions and factors that allow flowers preservation
III. Reduce postharvest losses at the market level
Economic,
management and marketing
Regarding
the aspects related to marketing of horticultural crops. Few studies
have been conducted. Searching for new strategies of marketing fresh
products is becoming a major concern of our growers as the European
Union markets, the main destination of Moroccan products, is imposing
different obstacles such as quotas and social close.
Institutions
working on Research (including horticultural products) in Morocco
with the number of scientists and researchers within brackets).
I. Institut Agronomique et Vétérinaire Hassan II, Agadir
(40 enseignants chercheurs)
II. Institut Agronomique et Vétérinaire Hassan II, Rabat
(240 enseignats chercheurs)
III. Institut National de la Recherche Agronomique, Rabat (260 chercheurs)
IV. Ecole Nationale d'Agriculture, Meknès (+90 enseignatns
chercheurs).
© WCHR
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Green - Seeds Co., Ltd.
81/10B Ho Van Hue Street, Phu Nhuan District, Ward 9, Ho Chi Minh City, Vietnam
Tel: +84 (8) 847 6901 - Fax: +84 (8) 844 1392 - Email: info@green-seeds.com
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