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GREEN-Seeds.com
vegetables & herbs
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Simon, J.E.
1990. Essential oils and culinary herbs. p. 472-483. In: J. Janick and
J.E. Simon (eds.), Advances in new crops. Timber Press, Portland, OR.
Essential Oils and Culinary Herbs
James E. Simon
- INTRODUCTION
- ESSENTIAL
OILS
- Chemistry
and Extraction of Essential Oils
- Essential
Oils as Industrial By-products
- Essential
Oil Plants
- Prospects
- CULINARY
HERBS
- Consumption
Pattern
- Promising
Herbs
- Prospects
- REFERENCES
- Table
1
- Table
2
- Table
3
- Table
4
- Table
5
- Table
6
- Table
7
- Table
8
INTRODUCTION
Essential oil plants and culinary herbs include a broad range of
plant species that are used for their aromatic value as flavorings in foods
and beverages and as fragrances in pharmaceutical and industrial products.
Essential oil plants derive from aromatic plants of many genera distributed
worldwide. In the United States, the most economically important sources
of domestically produced essential oils are industrial by-products from
citrus, balsam fir, pine, and cedarwood (Table 1,
2) while the most important crops grown in the U.S.
for essential oils are peppermint and spearmint (Table
3). Most other essential oils used in the U.S. are imported (Table
4) at an annual cost in 1988 of $150 million (USDA 1989b). A significant
quantity of the essential oil imported into the U.S. is further processed
for export along with domestically produced oil (Table
5). Culinary herbs are herbaceous aromatic plants grown and marketed
fresh or dried and include many of the same aromatic plants which are grown
for their extractable essential oils. Significant quantities of dried culinary
herbs are imported annually into the U.S. (Table 6).
Recent estimates by the USDA Foreign Agricultural Service reported that
more than $349 million of dried condiments, seasonings, and flavorings (Table
4) and $20 million of spice oleoresins were imported into the U.S. in 1988
(USDA 1989a). A significant amount of selected herbs are domestically produced
for the dried spice or condiment market Domestic production of these and
other herbs and spices now imported is increasing for both processing and
fresh market. The objectives of this paper are to provide an overview to
the plants which are processed in the U.S. for essential oils and to identify
fresh culinary herbs that are or can be grown in the continental U.S. The
potential opportunities and constraints for production of these new crops
in American agriculture will be highlighted.
ESSENTIAL OILS
Chemistry
and Extraction of Essential Oils
Essential oils are natural plant products which accumulate in specialized
structures such as oil cells, glandular trichomes, and oil or resin ducts.
The formation and accumulation of essential oils in plants have been reviewed
by Croteau (1986), Guenther (1972) and Runeckles and Mabry (1973). Chemically,
the essential oils are primarily composed of mono- and sesquiterpenes and
aromatic polypropanoids synthesized via the mevalonic acid pathway for terpenes
and the shikimic acid pathway for aromatic polypropanoids. The essential
oils from aromatic plants are for the most part volatile and thus, lend
themselves to several methods of extraction such as hydrodistillation, water
and steam distillation, direct steam distillation, and solvent extraction
(ASTA 1968, Guenther 1972, Heath 1981, Sievers 1928). The specific extraction
method employed is dependent upon the plant material to be distilled and
the desired end-product. The essential oils which impart the distinctive
aromas are complex mixtures of organic constituents, some of which being
less stable, may undergo chemical alterations when subjected to high temperatures.
In this case, organic solvent extraction is required to ensure no decomposition
or changes have occurred which would alter the aroma and fragrance of the
end-product. Newer methods of essential oil extraction such as using supercritical
CO2 which yield very high quality oils are commercially used,
but are less common and beyond the financial means of most processors. The
recovery of nonvolatile essential oils are also obtained by solvent extraction
although the process is more difficult and complex than the recovery of
the volatiles. This process yields an aromatic resinous product known as
an oleoresin, which is more concentrated than an essential oil and which
has wide application in the food industry (Heath 1981).
Essential Oils as
Industrial By-products
Although a primary focus of this review is to highlight aromatic
plants and culinary herbs produced in the U.S., it is important to recognize
that the largest quantities of essential oils produced in the U.S. are actually
byproducts from industrial processes yielding higher value primary products.
Citrus essential oils are recovered from the peel which contain the oil
sacs or glands located irregularly in the outer mesocarp of the fruit (Matthews
and Braddock 1987). These glands are embedded at different depths in the
flavedo, the colored, outer portion of the fruit and must be removed by
first rupturing the glands by pressure or mechanical rasping (Matthews and
Braddock 1987). The recovery of citrus oils by mechanical expression is
generally obtained by two types of commercial extractors, the FMC Citrus
juice Extractor (FMC Corp.) and the Brown Extractor (Automatic Machinery
Corp.) (Kealey and Kinsella 1979, Kesterson et al. 1971). Citrus oils are
recovered as cold-pressed oils or as a specific constituent such a d-limonene
as by-products of the juice and beverage industry and yield important aromatic
and flavoring compounds used in a wide array of food, cosmetic and industrial
products. The other large quantity of essential oils produced as industrial
by-products in this country comes from the wood and pulp manufacturing industries.
More than 1650 tonnes of such oils, predominantly from cedarwood, are produced
annually (Lawrence 1979).
Essential Oil Plants 
In the United States, only a relatively few plant species are now cultivated
and produced for essential oils. The most important species includes the
mints. The value, production, and areas of mint production in the United
States for 1988 is shown in Table 3. The production
and processing of mint in the United States has a rich history (Landing
1969, Rabak 1916) and is the most mechanized system of essential oil production
in the world (Ellis 1937, Ellis et al. 1941; Green 1975, 1963, Lacy 1981,
Smith and Robertson 1941). Mint oils are obtained by steam distillation.
The only other essential oil crop in the United States of significant volume
is dill where the oils are used in the manufacture of pickles. Although
dill oil can be obtained from the steam distillation of either seeds or
foliage, it is often obtained by harvesting dill as a green herb after the
seeds have formed but have not yet ripened. Dill seed oil is from the seeds
and dill weed oil is from the green herb prior to flowering (Heath 1981).
While many other herbs have been produced for essential oil in limited quantities
(Table 7), a complete list of crop species and production
area is difficult to obtain and confirm. Most all the essential oils derived
from temperate zone aromatic plants currently imported could be produced
for essential oil domestically. However, opportunities for domestic production
are limited because most essential oils from traditional herbs have limited
markets making penetration into established markets very difficult. Many
buyers and users have little interest in changing their suppliers unless
supplies from abroad become limited due to political instability, contamination
(such as the Chernobyl release of radioactive materials), or crop failure
which permits new suppliers into the marketplace. An additional difficulty
in establishing new sources of traditional essential oils is in demonstrating
the ability to produce the quantity and quality demanded by the industry
at a competitive price. Many countries have government funded programs to
establish new industries for export and which absorb much of the developmental
costs associated with the evaluation and introduction of new crops. When
these programs are coupled with crop champions and a strong relationship
with the processing industry, the success of new crop development significantly
increases. Such a program encouraged extensive work with several herbs for
potential production in the prairies of western Canada (Embong et al. 1977a-e).
Such programs have allowed Israel to go from an importer to a significant
exporter of essential oils (128 tonnes of essential oils annually) in a
relatively short time period (Putievsky 1989). International development
programs have also contributed to the creation of essential oil industries.
Technical assistance and funding from the Marshall Plan, enabled the large
scale cultivation of herbs, spices and medicinal plants in Hungary (Mathe
1989). Prior to WWII, most Hungarian herbs were collected from the wild,
but in part as a result of such an economic development program, Hungary
has emerged as a significant exporter of cultivated essential oils (65,808
tonnes produced in 1982). One of the challenges in developing new essential
oil crops or in establishing a new geographical area for the production
of an essential oil already on the market is procuring or developing generic
lines with the suitable agronomic characteristics and desirable chemical
constituents. The evaluation of a large and diverse germplasm collection
thus becomes the first step in new crop development. This stage alone could
take many years unless a processor supplies the particular chemotype that
meets their processing needs. Unlike peppermint which must be vegetatively
propagated, most essential oil crops are open pollinated and available seed
have not been selected for homogeneity in growth or for flavor and aroma.
Two examples will suffice to illustrate both the chemical diversity of herb
cultivars and germplasm and approaches to crop improvement. Parsley oil.
Little information was available on the compounds responsible for the flavor
of parsley and the genetic variability of the essential oil constituents
of this important culinary herb. A recent study showed that essential oil
content of a large germplasm collection ranged from 0.00 to 0.16% (v/fresh
weight) and that the oil constituents varied significantly although the
major constituent was 1,3,8-p-menthatriene, followed by ß-phellandrene,
myristicin, and myrcene (Simon and Quinn 1988). In parallel study evaluating
the essential oils of commercially available parsley curly-leaf types had
as high essential oil content as the flat-leaf types, commonly believed
to be more flavorful (Simon et al. 1989). Basil oil. Sweet basil
(Ocimum basilicum L.) is a popular culinary herb and a source of
essential oils (ITC 1986) extracted by steam distillation from the leaves
and flowering tops and used to flavor foods, in dental and oral products,
and in fragrances. There are several types of basil oil on the world market
European, French, or sweet basil; Egyptian; Reunion or Comoro; Bulgarian;
and Java (Heath 1981). The European basil oils, considered to be the highest
quality, contain methyl chavicol d-linalool and to a lesser extent 1,8-cineole,
plus many other compounds (Guenther 1985, Simon et al. 1984). Egyptian basil
oil is similar to the European, except that the concentration of d-linalool
is lower and methyl chavicol is higher. Reunion or Comoro contains little
d-linalool, but has a very high concentration of methyl chavicol (Lawrence
et al. 1972, Simon et al. 1984). Bulgarian basil oil is rich in methyl-cinnamate
and Java basil oil is rich in eugenol (Heath 1981). From an evaluation of
the entire USDA collection plus other commercial and wild sources, we observed
a wide range of chemical variation within O. basilicum and other
species (O. canum, O. sanctum, O. gratissimum, and O. kilimandscharicum).
We have identified chemotypes that represent each of the commercial types
of basil oil. Promising lines are being screened for chemical stability,
vigor, and uniformity. The characteristics of the population has continued
to improve under mass selection. Isolation blocks serve as seed sources.
We are currently developing a new line rich in methyl cinnamate (Simon et
al. 1990).
Prospects
Market surveys have reviewed world production of essential oils
and identified areas of future growth (Greenhalgh 1979, Lawrence 1985, ITC
1986). For essential oil crops to be successfully developed in the United
States, a long term coordinated strategy is required with either strong
support from industry and grower groups or significant support by state
and/or federal programs in concert with growers and the users of essential
oils. Regions where the industrial infrastructure already exists (e.g. extraction
equipment growers familiar with essential oil production, with brokers,
buyers and processors in the proximity) will have the greatest opportunities
and chance of success in developing new essential oil crops into American
agriculture. New essential oil crops must be compatible with existing crops
in a farm operation and offer economic returns at levels higher than those
presently received. Successful introduction of new plant sources of raw
aroma chemicals for the fragrance industry could allow the rapid development
of a new industry. An example is the development through selection of Monarda
spp. rich in geraniol in Morden, Manitoba (Rafe Guadiel, personal communication)
or Ocimum spp. rich in methyl cinnamate or methyl chavicol (Simon
et al. 1990). The creation of new markets for specialized oils can take
many years and would be most successful when working in collaboration with
an end-user whose needs can be met by the new product. The incorporation
of new aromas into perfumes and fragrances and the development of new products
is critical to the success of the perfumer and flavor chemist. The difficulty
for the agricultural researcher is to learn the types of aromas and chemical
constituents desired by the perfumer and flavorist. The identification of
new species rich in desirable essential oils may be a promising route to
pursue.
CULINARY HERBS
Consumption Pattern
Americans are consuming ever increasing amounts of fresh, frozen, processed
and dried culinary herbs and spices, and this trend appears to be here to
stay. The same trend is true for specially fruits and vegetables (Fielding
1988). Factors accounting for increased consumption include interest in
new foods and tastes, availability of more fresh herbs, advertising and
promotion to food services and institutional food chains, and expanding
ethnic populations demanding foods and flavorings of their homeland. Who
will be supplying these herbs and are there opportunities for commercial
growers in the production of dried and fresh herbs? Much of the dried herbs
produced domestically are produced in California by well-established food
companies that own and operate drying and processing facilities and already
package, transport and market these products. Growth in this area will continue
as long as increased demand and consumption of these herbs continue. Additional
growth is likely to occur in the contract growing of herbs by private growers
to supply raw product to drying and processing companies. Some companies
both grow and process their own product, but most contract practically all
of their raw material needs to growers. Processing companies that are now
procuring most of their dried herbs abroad may be more willing to obtain
some of the same materials domestically Growth in the dried herbal market
will also probably occur with an increasing number of spice companies and
natural food wholesalers and retailers catering to specialized markets (e.g.
organic or pesticide free-herbs and spices, specially restaurants) and which
unlike many of the larger food and flavor houses produce specialized herb
and other food products. There has been tremendous growth in the fresh herb
market as evidenced by the increased variety of herbs available both in
the larger supermarkets, the smaller grocery outlets, farmers markets, and
roadside farm markets (Simon 1986, Simon et al. 1989, Simon and Clavio 1989,
Simon and Grant 1987a, b). Herbs that were only available dried, or fresh
during a few months of the year, are now being marketed fresh cut and more
recently, as live potted herbs in the produce sections of supermarkets all
year long. Recognizing this growth, the USDA (1989c) now lists weekly prices
for herbs sold in nineteen major wholesale markets plus the type of container,
package, and weight count, and quality of each unit in the National Market
News Report. The herbs now covered include anise, arrugala, basil, borage,
chervil, chives, cilantro, dill ginger root horseradish, parsley lemongrass,
marjoram, mint, oregano, rosemary savory, sage, sorrel tarragon, thyme,
and watercress. The successful introduction of new culinary herbs into commercial
production requires a purposeful strategy and a solid information base.
Unfortunately culinary herbs and essential oil crops have been studied little
compared to all other food and fiber crops (Craker et al. 1986). While several
extension guides have been published on herbs, few guides based on research
are available in this country In a bibliographic review of the scientific
literature from 1971-1980 (Simon et al. 1984), over 10,000 authors are listed
with published research articles on the major economical herbs of the temperate
zone involving horticultural research (38%), botany (17%), chemistry (14%),
pharmacology (11%), ecology and germplasm (8%). With the exception of peppermint
and spearmint most all crop research on herbs was conducted outside of the
United States. Although the United States is the principal world producer
of mint oils, only 10% of all published mint research from 1971-1980 originated
in the U.S. (Craker et al. 1986).
Promising Herbs
There is a wide range of culinary herbs that can be grown in the
continental United States and which may offer potential for production.
Many herbs are already being commercially produced, albeit in small quantities,
often in relatively small farms. Those herbs which show promise for the
fresh market are listed in Table 8. Three examples
of culinary herbs with great promise are discussed below. Coriander
(Coriandrum sativum L). This annual herb native to the eastern Mediterranean
and southern European region has long been prized for its spicy aromatic
seeds which are used either whole or in ground form as a main ingredient
in curry and other food and flavor products. Coriander can be grown as a
seed crop in the U.S. using existing mechanization and production technology
but seeds ripen unevenly and the mature seeds shatter from the plant. Present
demand for coriander seed is met by existing foreign suppliers and although
the yield of coriander seed is moderately high (1,100-1,700 kg/ha) and the
cost of production relatively low, there is still a question whether domestic
commercial opportunities exist for coriander seed production as a spice.
The profit margin of coriander would at best match the more traditional
cash crops (maize, soybeans). Postharvest costs of cleaning the seed, handling
and shipping can be major factors determining the profitability of this
seed spice crop. Coriander seed is also processed via steam distillation
for the extractable essential oil of which d-linalool is the major constituent.
The oil is then used in the food and perfume industries. Recently, American
consumers have witnessed the introduction of coriander leaves into the marketplace.
This fresh product, known as cilantro, is marketed in bunches as a leafy
green spice. While new to American cuisine, cilantro has long been a popular
herb in Oriental, Middle Eastern and Latin American cooking. Coriander,
a cool season crop, is easy to grow as a culinary herb and is most suited
to fertile loam soils. The plant is direct seeded with a seed drill at rates
of 13-18 kg/ha in very early spring. In Florida and New Jersey, coriander
is often planted weekly At harvest, the whole plant is manually cut and
bunched in the field. One of the major problems in producing cilantro is
premature flowering. Bolting becomes acute as the days get hotter and longer.
A number of seed companies now offer slow-to-bolt (long-standing) cultivars.
There are significant differences among coriander cultivars regarding the
response to premature flowering, and while some are less susceptible, none
are totally unresponsive to high temperatures and long days (Simon et al.
1989). Thus, cilantro is planted as a spring, early summer, or fall crop.
The aroma of cilantro is also due to an extractable essential oil, although
its composition is distinctly different from the seed oil. Quality of fresh
cilantro is based upon strong green color, strong aroma, and visual appearance
(i.e. freedom from insects, discolorations). To the grower, yield and the
cultivars' resistance to bolt are additional factors to be considered. Cilantro
has a relatively short shelf life and requires refrigeration. Cilantro can
be kept for 3 to 4 weeks at 0°C, but only 2 to 3 weeks when stored
at 5°C (Cantwell 1989). Cilantro is routinely iced after harvest. Cilantro
is expected to become increasingly important in the U.S. due in part to
the expanding Hispanic and Arabic populations, its unique flavor, and increasing
familiarity in the marketplace. Sweet Fennel (Foeniculum vulgare
Mill.). Sweet fennel has highly aromatic leaves and attractive green fern-like
foliage but is best known for its seeds which are sold commercially as a
spice. Limited domestic production for seed has occurred periodically, but
demand is relatively small and adequate supplies can be obtained abroad.
Successful domestic production of fennel for the seed as a spice will probably
not occur unless the yields can be significantly improved, supplies from
abroad become limited, or a government program makes the production of new
crops more beneficial. Fennel is a perennial but grown as an annual. It
is most suited to well drained light loam soil. The plant is easy to grow
and is typically direct seeded (3.5-5 kg/ha seed/acre) into the ground in
beds with a specialized planter adapted to small-seeded crops. Plant spacing
varies significantly with rows in the beds 60-1 00 cm apart and with final
plant stands of 10-30 cm apart in the row. Fennel is a cool-season crop,
seeds are sown in early spring and germinate at temperatures >7°C
(optimum soil temp. approx. 16-18°C). Yields of up to 2,240 kg/ha have
been achieved, although earlier USDA estimates were only in the range of
650-900 kg/ha (Sievers 1948). The plant requires 100-115 days to mature
before harvest. The production of fennel as a culinary herb, cultivated
both for its aromatic leaves and enlarged leaf stalk is on the rise. This
type, called Florence fennel or finocchio fennel, is a different subspecies
than regular fennel produced as a seed spice. Very popular in Europe as
a specially vegetable in many culinary dishes, it is commonly consumed raw
in Italy and cooked in France. Finocchio is becoming commonplace in U.S.
supermarkets and consumer interest and familiarity is increasing. One of
the limiting factors to increased consumption is the public's unfamiliarity
with it's preparation, use and taste. Unfortunately finocchio fennel is
often marketed under the misnomer of anise, another culinary herb (Pimpinella
anisum L.), which has led to market and consumer confusion. Both plants
contain high amounts of anethole in the essential oil, imparting the licorice-like
aroma and taste. The time to harvest fennel bulbs is difficult to assess
because the thickened leaf stalk continues to grow and develop until flowering
takes place. Care in harvesting, grading and packing fennel must be taken
to ensure a high quality fresh pack. Harvesting, cleaning, trimming and
packing is done by hand. The foliage must be dark green and fresh in appearance
and the stalk and bulb (enlarged base of leaf stalk) a lighter greenish-white
color. The bulb must be firm and the product free from insects and discolorations.
Once harvested, fennel should be kept at 0 to 2°C (Seelig 1974). The
plants are retailed individually, either wrapped in plastic or simply displayed
like celery. Great variability (in growth and aroma) in commercially available
cultivars of fennel and finocchio fennel exist (Simon et al. 1989) making
the proper selection of cultivars for spring and fall production important.
Finocchio fennel shows excellent potential for future growth in the U.S.
Oregano (Origanum spp.). Their has been a significant increase
in the consumption of oregano for both the fresh and processed market (Tucker
1987). Oregano, the common name for a wide number of plant species with
a characteristic aroma and flavor, is a perennial aromatic plant native
to the dry calcareous soils of southern Europe, southwest Asia, and the
eastern Mediterranean (Simon et al. 1984). A major problem which has limited
domestic production was in the difficulty in distinguishing the many plant
species and types of oregano imported and marketed as oregano. Imported
oregano was found to be derived from 16 plant genera and more than 40 plant
species (Calpouzos 1954), resulting in oregano being described as a flavor
and aroma rather than an individual plant. Taxonomic work by Tucker (1986,
1989) has identified the major types of commercial cultivars and cultivated
taxa in this country and the major types of imported oregano. Yet much of
the imported oregano arrives as a blend of plants. Selection of an individual
line for domestic production, particularly for the dried leaf or as an essential
oil, remains difficult. The European type of oregano comes mainly from subspecies
of O. vulgare L. including ssp. hirtum (Link) Ietswaart, ssp.
virens (Hoffmanns. & Link) Ietswaart and ssp. viride (Boiss.)
Hayek (Tucker 1989). In contrast Mexican oregano, also called Mexican sage,
is principally gathered from the small Mexican shrub, Lippia graveolens
H.B.K. (Simon et al. 1984), although leaves from other species are collected.
The essential oil of European oregano is composed mainly of carvacrol and
thymol. The range of each can be very wide and many chemotypes are available.
The herb or the extracted oil is used in a variety of meat and sausage products,
salads, stews, sauces and soups. European oregano and to a larger extent
Mexican oregano, are used in flavoring Mexican foods, pizza, and barbecue
sauces. Oregano is generally transplanted to the field and grown on light,
dry well-drained soils for periods of 3 to 6 years. Domestic horticultural
studies on this species are limited. Although yields of more than 14 tonnes
fresh herb/ha or almost 4 tonnes dried herb/ha were obtained from one commercial
line by a single annual harvest (Simon et al. 1989), typically yields are
much lower (1.5-3 tonnes dried herb/ha). Plants can be harvested multiple
times each year (from 2 to 6) depending upon the location and end-use. Opportunities
exist for dried product as well as for the fresh market. Once harvested
for the fresh market oregano should be kept at 0deg.C to maximize shelf-life
(Cantwell 1989).
Prospects
Production of culinary herbs for the fresh, frozen processed and
dried market will likely increase. The large growth in the production of
fresh culinary herbs provides opportunities to growers that either develop
a market niche or cooperate closely with a broker or specialist in marketing.
It is likely that the large volume herbs will continue to come from areas
of intensive vegetable production such as Florida, New Jersey and California.
Herbs can be expected to become fully integrated with fresh market vegetables
in packaging, cooling, transport, and marketing operations. Unless governmental
regulations change, there will be strong competition from Mexico, the Caribbean,
and other areas to supply fresh herbs to the American public. Overproduction
of specific herbs within a limited marketplace can result in significant
decreases in the wholesale market prices. Greater opportunities for small
producers maybe in the development of specialized markets, rather than for
the wholesale trade.
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MI.
- Lacy, M.L., C.T. Stephens, R.J. Green, and A.C. York. 1981. Mint production
in the midwestern United States. North Central Reg. Ext. Pub. 155.
- Lawrence, B.M. 1985. A review of the world production of essential
oils (1984). Perf. & Flav. 10:1-16.
- Lawrence, B.M. 1979. Commercial production of non-citrus essential
oils in North America. Perf. & Flav. 3:21-33.
- Lawrence, B.M., J.W.Hogg, S.J. Terhune and N. Pichitakul. 1972. Essential
oils and their constituents. IX. The oils of Ocimum sanctum and
Ocimum basilicum from Thailand. Flavor Ind. Jan. 47-49.
- Mathe, A. 1989. Spice and medicinal plant production and processing
in Hungary and the neighboring countries. Herbs '89. Proc. Fourth Nat.
Herb Growing and Marketing Conf. July 22-25, 1989, San Jose, CA. International
Herb Growers and Marketers Assoc., Silver Springs, PA. pp. 74-79.
- Matthews, R.F. and R.J. Braddock. 1987. Recovery and applications
of essential oils from oranges. Food Tech. 41:(l):57-61.
- Putievsky, E. 1989. Production of aromatic plants in Israel. Proc.
Third Nat. Herb Growing and Market Conf. July 24-27, 1988, Louisville,
KY. Purdue Univ. Agric. Exp. Sta. Bull. 552:130-133.
- Rabak, F. 1916. The effect of cultural and climatic conditions on
the yield and quality of peppermint Oil. USDA Wash., DC. USDA Bul. 454.
- Runeckles, V.C. and T.J. Mabry (eds.). 1973. Terpenoids: structure,
biogenesis, and distribution Academic Press, New York.
- Seelig, R.A. 1974. Anise. United Fresh Fruit & Vegetable Association,
Fruit & Vegetable Facts & Pointers, Alexandria, VA.
- Sievers, A.F. 1948. Production of drug and condiment plants. Farmers'
Bul. 1999. USDA., Wash., DC.
- Sievers, A.F. 1947. The production of minor essential oils in the
United States. Econ. Bot 1:148-160.
- Sievers, A.F. 1928. Methods of extracting volatile oils from plant
material and the production of such oils in the United States. USDA
Tech. Bull. 16. USDA., Wash., DC.
- Simon, J.E. 1987. Developing herbs as cash crops in the United States.
Proc. First Nat Herb Growing and Market. Conf. July 19-22, 1986, West
Lafayette, IN. Purdue Univ. Agric. Exp. Sta. Bul. 518:13-32.
- Simon, J.E., E. Cebert, and D. Reiss-Bubenheim. 1989. Cultivar evaluation
of culinary herbs. Herbs '89. Proc. Fourth Nat. Herb Growing and Market.
Conf. July 22-25,1989, San Jose, CA. International Herb Growers and
Marketers Assoc., Silver Springs, PA. p. 12-21.
- Simon, J.E., A.F. Chadwick, and L.E. Craker. 1984. Herbs: An indexed
bibliography 1971-1980; the scientific literature on selected herbs,
and aromatic and medicinal plants of the temperate zone. Archon Books,
Hamden, CT.
- Simon, J.E. and L.Z. Clavio (eds.). 1989. Proc. Third Nat. Herb Growing
and Market. Conf July 24-27, 1988, Louisville, KY. Purdue Univ. Agric.
Exp. Sta. Bul. 552.
- Simon, J.E. and L. Grant (eds.). 1987. Proc. Second Nat. Herb Growing
and Marketing Conf. July 19-22, 1987, Indianapolis, IN. Purdue Univ.
Agric. Exp. Sta. Bul. 530.
- Simon, J.E. and L. Grant (eds.). 1987. Proc. of the First Nat. Herb
Growing and marketing Conf. July 19-22,1986, West Lafayette, IN. Purdue
Univ. Agric. Exp. Sta. Bul. 518.
- Simon, J.E., A. Kestner and M. Buehrle (eds.). 1989. Herbs '89. Proc.
of the Fourth National Herb Growing and Marketing Conf. July 22-25,
1989, San Jose, CA. International Herb Growers and Marketers Assoc.,
Silver Springs, PA.
- Simon, J.E. and J. Quinn. 1988. Characterization of essential oil
of parsley. J. Agric. Food Chem. 36:467-472.
- Simon, J.E., J. Quinn, and R.G. Murray 1990. Basil: A source of essential
oils. p. 484-489. In: Janick, J. and J.E. Simon (eds.). Advances in
new crops. Timber Press, Portland, OR.
- Simon, J. E. and D. Reiss-Bubenheim. 1988. Field performance of American
basil varieties. Herb, Spice and Medicinal Plant Digest. Mass. Coop.
Ext. Serv. Amherst, MA. Vol. 6:1-4.
- Smith, M.G. and L. Robertson. 1941. An economic analysis of the production
of peppermint and spearmint oils in Indiana. Purdue Univ. Agric. Exp.
Sta. Bul. 459.
- Staff of Liberty Hyde Bailey Hortorium. 1976. Hortus third. MacMillan,
New York.
- Tucker. A.O. 1986. Botanical nomenclature of culinary herbs and potherbs.
Herbs, spices, and medicinal plants: Recent advances in botany, horticulture,
and pharmacology. Vol. 1:33-80. Oryx Press, Phoenix, AZ.
- Tucker, A.O. and M.J. Maciarello. 1987. Plant identification. Proc.
First Nat Herb Growing and Market. Conf. July 19-22, 1986, West Lafayette,
IN, Purdue Univ. Agric. Exp. Sta. Bull. 518:126-172.
- Tucker, A.O. and E.D. Rollins. 1989. The species, hybrids, and cultivars
of Origanum (Lamiaceae) cultivated in the United States. Baileys
23:14-27.
- USDA 1989a. U.S. essential oil trade. USDA Foreign Agr. Serv. FTEA
2-89.
- USDA 1989b. U.S. spice trade. USDA Foreign Agr. Serv. FTEA 1-89.
- USDA 1989c. National wholesale herb market news report. USDA Agr.
Marketing Service. Fruit and Vegetable Market News. Chicago, IL. (issued
weekly).
- Williams, L.O. 1960. Drug and condiment plants. USDA Agr. Res. Serv.
Agr. Handbk 172.
*Acknowledgements: I thank Jules Janick, John
Pasquale, Tom Burns, Bob Braddock, Art Tucker, Dee Phillips, Rex Dull, Bob
Griffin and Denys Charles for their comments and assistance in the preparation
of this manuscript J. Paper No. 12, 114, Purdue Univ. Agric. Expt. Sta.,
West Lafayette, IN. 47907.
Table
1. Essential oils obtained from wild plants and trees as industrial
by-products.z
| Essential oils |
Species |
| Cedar leaf oil |
Thuja occidentalis L. (American or eastern white cedar |
| Balsam fir oil |
Abies balsamea (L.) Mill. (Balsam fir) |
| Hemlock oil |
Tsuga canadensis (L.) Carr. (Canadian or eastern hemlock) |
|
T. caroliniana Engelm. (Carolina hemlock) |
|
T. heterophylla (Raf) Sarg. (Western hemlock) |
|
T. mertensiana (Bong.) Carr. (Mountain hemlock) |
| Spruce oil |
Picea glauca (Moench) Voss (White spruce) |
|
P. mariana (Mill.) BSP. (Black spruce) |
|
Tsuga canadensis (L.) Carr. (Canadian or eastern hemlock) |
| Cedarwood oil |
Juniperus mexicana Scheide (Texas cedarwood) |
|
J. virginiana L. (Virginia cedarwood or red cedar) |
| Sweetbirch oil |
Betula lenta L. (Cherry birch, sweet birch) |
| Wintergreen oil |
Gaultheria procumbens L. (Wintergreen) |
zModified
from Lawrence (1979).
Table
2. Major essential oil crops produced in the United States.z
| Citrus |
| Grapefruit |
Citrus x paradisi Macfady |
| Lemon |
Citrus limon (L.) Burm. f. |
| Lime |
Citrus aurantifolia (Christm.) Swingle. |
| Orange, Sweet |
Citrus sinensis (L.) Osbeck |
| Tangerine and Mandarin |
Citrus reticulata Blanco |
| Mint |
| Peppermint |
Mentha x piperita L. |
| Spearmint (native) |
M. spicata L. |
| (Scotch) |
M. x gracilis Sole |
| Other spice oils |
| Nutmeg |
Myristica fragrans Houtty |
| Pepper |
Piper nigrum L.y |
| Pimento (Allspice) |
Pimenta dioica (L.) Merrilly |
zModified
from International Trade Center (1986) and Lawrence (1979).
yProcessed in the USA only.
Table
3. United States production, yield and value of peppermint and spearmint
essential oils, 1988.
|
Peppermint |
Spearmint |
| State |
Area harvested (1,000 ha) |
Avg. yield (kg/ha) |
Value ($1,000,000) |
Area harvested (1,000 ha) |
Avg. yield (kg/ha) |
Value ($1,000,000) |
| Idaho |
4.8 |
76 |
10.1 |
0.8 |
97 |
2.3 |
| Indiana |
2.9 |
30 |
5.3 |
1.6 |
22 |
1.4 |
| Michigan |
— |
— |
— |
0.6 |
26 |
0.6 |
| Oregon |
16.2 |
80 |
47.7 |
0.6 |
82 |
1.6 |
| Washington |
6.7 |
96 |
20.0 |
3.9 |
146 |
14.6 |
| Wisconsin |
2.0 |
22 |
2.2 |
1.6 |
26 |
1.7 |
| Total |
32.6 |
61 |
85.3 |
9.1 |
6b |
22.2 |
Modified from:
USDA (1989a).
Table 4. United States imports of specified
oils, 1988.
| Selected essential oils |
Quantity
(MT) |
Value of
production
($1,000,000) |
Major source |
| Anise oil |
49 |
0.6 |
China, Spain, France |
| Bergamot oil |
53 |
2.2 |
Italy, France, FRG |
| Camphor oil |
33 |
0.2 |
Taiwan, China, France |
| Caraway oil |
8 |
0.2 |
Netherlands, France, Poland |
| Cedar leaf oil |
32 |
1.5 |
Canada |
| Cedarwood oil |
720 |
2.2 |
China, Hong Kong |
| Citronella oil |
517 |
4.9 |
China, Taiwan, Argentina |
| Citrus oils, other |
53 |
0.6 |
Mexico, Brazil |
| Comment oil (Mentha arvensis) |
273 |
2.5 |
China, Brazil, England |
| Eucalyptus oil |
312 |
1.9 |
China, Australia, Brazil |
| Geranium oil |
83 |
3.5 |
France, China, Egypt |
| Grapefruit oil |
85 |
1.2 |
Brazil, Israel, Belize |
| Lavender oil (inc. spike) |
75 |
1.3 |
France, Spain, Bulgaria |
| Lemon oil |
744 |
10.2 |
Argentina, Spain, Italy |
| Lemongrass oil |
74 |
0.9 |
Guatemala, India |
| Lignaloe (Bois de rose oil) |
53 |
1.3 |
Brazil, France |
| Lime oil |
870 |
13.0 |
Mexico, Peru, Brazil |
| Neroli (orange flower oil) |
1 |
0.5 |
France, FRG |
| Onion and Garlic oil |
13 |
1.3 |
Mexico, Egypt Netherlands |
| Orange oil |
5,684 |
8.8 |
Brazil, Mexico, Israel |
| Origanum oil |
7 |
0.3 |
Spain, France |
| Orris oil |
2 |
1.1 |
FRG, France |
| Palmarosa oil |
15 |
0.4 |
India, Guatemala, Brazil |
| Peppermint oil (mentha x piperita) |
13 |
0.4 |
Hong Kong, France |
| Petitgrain oil |
119 |
2.3 |
Paraguay, Brazil |
| Pine oil |
618 |
0.6 |
Mexico |
| Pineneedle oil |
257 |
1.0 |
Mexico, Canada |
| Rose oil (Attar of roses) |
2 |
8.7 |
France, Turkey, Brazil |
| Rosemary oil |
48 |
0.5 |
Spain France, Tunisia |
| Sassafras oil |
344 |
1.6 |
Brazil, China |
| Spearmint oil |
69 |
0.8 |
China, Hong Kong |
| Thyme oil |
14 |
0.5 |
Spain, France |
| Vetiver oil |
96 |
6.0 |
Haiti, Indonesia, France |
| Ylang ylang (Cananga oil) |
41 |
2.7 |
France, Comoros, Indonesia |
| Other essential oils |
1,545 |
40.0 |
France, China, Brazil |
| Total |
12,921 |
125.5 |
Note: All values
refer to f.o.b. country of origin.
Modified from: USDA (1989a).
Table
5. United States exports of selected essential oils, 1988.
| Essential oils |
Quantity
(MT) |
Value
($1,000,000) |
| Cedarwood, clove & nutmeg oils |
660 |
4.5 |
| Lemon oil |
317 |
4.8 |
| Orange oil |
1,701 |
5.3 |
| Peppermint oil |
1,236 |
41.4 |
| Spearmint oil |
461 |
14.2 |
| Other oils |
4,062 |
52.6 |
Modified from:
USDA (1989a).
Table
6. United States imports of selected dried culinary herbs and spices,
1988.
| Item |
Quantity (MT) |
Value
($1,000,000) |
Major source |
| Anise |
767 |
1.4 |
Spain, Turkey, Egypt |
| Basilz |
1,806 |
2.5 |
Egypt, France |
| Capers |
1,124 |
6.5 |
Spain, Morocco |
| Capsicum/Red peppersz |
10,169 |
14.0 |
Pakistan, China, Mexico, India |
| Caraway |
2,838 |
2.4 |
Netherlands, Egypt Poland |
| Celery seed |
2,253 |
1.8 |
India |
| Coriandery |
5,938 |
3.3 |
Mexico, Morocco, Romania |
| Cumin |
3,700 |
4.5 |
Turkey, China |
| Dill |
364 |
0.6 |
India, Egypt |
| Fennel |
1,754 |
1.8 |
Egypt, India, China |
| Garlic |
3,714 |
1.4 |
China |
| Gingerx |
5,054 |
4.6 |
Fiji, Brazil, China |
| Laurelz |
616 |
0.9 |
Turkey |
| Marjoramz |
382 |
0.5 |
Egypt |
| Mint leavesz |
172 |
0.6 |
FRG, Egypt |
| Mustardz |
47,416 |
18.2 |
Canada, France |
| Onions (dried, dehydrated) |
107 |
<0.1 |
Canada |
| Origanum |
3,837 |
7.2 |
Mexico, Turkey Greece |
| Paprika |
4,917 |
8.5 |
Spain, Hungary |
| Parsley |
964 |
1.1 |
Mexico, Israel |
| Poppyseed |
3,693 |
4.0 |
Australia, Netherlands |
| Rosemary |
810 |
0.7 |
Spain, France, Yugoslavia |
| Sage |
1,666 |
5.6 |
Yugoslavia, Albania |
| Savory |
194 |
0.1 |
Yugoslavia, France |
| Sesame seed |
33,146 |
25.7 |
Mexico, Guatemala, El Salvador |
| Tarragon |
62 |
0.6 |
France, New Zealand |
| Thyme |
956 |
2.1 |
Spain, Jamaica, Morocco |
| Turmeric |
1,639 |
2.0 |
India |
| Mixed spices, others |
2,473 |
6.7 |
India, Morocco, Thailand |
zCrude
& all other forms.
yFor seed and dried leaf (cilantro).
xIncludes only ground and unground ginger root and sweet ginger.
Modified from: USDA (1989b).
Table 7. Estimated annual production of essential
oils from aromatic plants grown in the United States.z
| Herbs |
Species |
Quantity
of oil
(MT) |
| Dill weed |
Anethum graveolens L. |
70 |
| Clary sage |
Salvia sclarea L. |
5 |
| Perennial wormwood |
Artemisia absinthium L. |
3 |
| Basil |
Ocimum basilicum L. |
1 |
| Wormseed |
Chenopodium ambrosioides L. |
1 |
| Tansy |
Tanacetum vulgare L. |
0.5 |
| Snakeroot (Canadian) |
Asarum canadense L.y |
0.1 |
| Celery herb |
Apium graveolens L. |
nax |
| Celery seed |
Apium graveolens L. |
na |
| Marigold |
Tagetes minuta L. |
na |
| Parsley herb |
Petroselinum crispum (Mill.) Nym ex A. W. Hill |
na |
zModified
from Lawrence (1985), based on 1984 production.
yRoots of 'snakeroot' are also collected from Virginia snakeroot
(Aristolochia serpentaria L.)
xData not available.
Table
8. Selected culinary herbs which can be grown in the continental
United States.z
| Herb |
Speciesy |
| Apiaceae (Umbelliferae) |
| Angelica |
Angelica archangelica L. |
| Anise |
Pimpinella anisum L. |
| Caraway |
Carum carvi L. |
| Chervil |
Anthriscus cerefolium (L.) Hoffm. |
| Cilantro |
Coriandrum sativum L. (see coriander) |
| Coriander |
Coriandrum sativum L. |
| Cumin |
Cuminum cyminum L. |
| Dill |
Anethum graveolens L. |
| Fennel |
Foeniculum vulgare Mill. |
| Lovage |
Levisticum officinale Koch |
| Mitsuba |
Cryptotaenia japonica Hassk. |
| Parsley |
Petroselinum crispum (Mill.) Nym. ex A. W. Hill |
| Asteraceae (Compositae) |
| Chamomile |
Chamaemelum nobile (L.) All (Roman) |
|
Chamomilla recutita (L.) Rauschert (German) |
| Chicory |
Cichorium intybus L. |
| Chrysanthemum (edible) or Chopsuey greens |
Chrysanthemum coronarium L. |
| Costmary |
Balsamita major Desf. |
| Curry Plant |
Helichrysum angustifolium (Lam.) DC |
| Dandelion |
Taraxacum officinale G. H. Weber |
| French Tarragon |
Artemisia dracunculus L. |
| Boraginaceae |
| Borage |
Borago officinalis L. |
| Brassicaceae (Cruciferae) |
| Arrugula or rocket salad |
Eruca vesicaria (L.) Cav. ssp. saliva (Mill.) Thell |
| Horseradish |
| American |
Armoracia rusticana P. Gaertn. |
| Japanese |
Wasabia japonica (Miq.) Matsumura |
| Mustard |
Brassica spp. |
| Black |
Brassica juncea (L.) Czern. |
| Brown |
Brassica nigra (L.) W. Koch |
| White |
Sinapsis alba L. |
| Pepper grass or garden cress |
Lepidium sativum L. |
| Watercress |
Nasturtium officinale R. Br. |
| Capparaceae |
| Capers |
Capparis spinosa L. |
| Iridaceae |
| Saffron |
Crocus sativus L. |
| Lamiaceae (Labiatae) |
| Anise-hyssop |
Agastache foeniculum (Pursh) Kuntze |
| Basil |
Ocimum spp. |
| Beebalm |
Monarda spp. |
| Hyssop |
Hyssopus officinalis L. |
| Korean mint |
Agastache rugosa (Fisch. & C. A. Mey) Kuntze |
| Lavender |
Lavendula spp. |
| Lemon balm |
Melissa officinalis L. |
| Mint |
Mentha spp. |
| Peppermint |
Mentha x piperita |
| Native spearmint |
Mentha spicata L. |
| Scotch spearmint |
Mentha x gracilis Sole |
| Marjoram |
Origanum marjorana L. |
| Oregano |
Origanum vulgare L. |
| Perilla |
Perilla frutescens |
| Rosemary |
Rosmarinus officinalis L. |
| Sage |
Salvia officinalis L. |
| Savory |
Satureja hortensis L. (summer savory) |
|
Satureja montana L. (winter savory) |
| Thyme |
Thymus spp. |
| Lauraceae |
| Bay Laurel |
Laurus nobilis L. |
| Liliaceae |
| Chives |
Allium schoenoprasum L. |
| Chinese chives |
Allium tuberosum Rattler ex Spreng. |
| Garlic |
Allium sativum L. |
| Kurrat |
Allium kurrat Schweinf. ex K Krause |
| Leeks |
Allium ampeloprasum, Porrum group |
| Shallots |
Allium cepa, Aggregatum group
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