|
|
|
|
 |
 |
|
|
|
|
Green-Seeds.com
Fruits
& Others
|
|
|
Banana
Capital
 The high cost of land,
equipment, structure, operations, and interest rates have adversely affected
feasibility of starting new farms, expansions and maintaining existing farms.
High costs may discourage farmers from seeking credit as well as lenders
extending credit when project is not feasible. However, viable farmers with
financial stability and repayment ability generally should not find it difficult
to obtain financing. Farms situated on the rift zone area of the Big Island
(about 25% of the island's banana farms) have experienced difficulty in
obtaining loans from certain lenders.
There are viable
agricultural cooperatives with access to capital sources. The ability of
a cooperative to raise capital is a reflection of factors such as financial
position, earnings, ability to repay, etc. Adequate commitment by farmer-members
is very critical. What appears to be lacking is an adequate understanding
of cooperatives by farmers. To enhance the effectiveness of cooperatives,
there is a need for continuing education and training and effective guidance
of new and existing cooperatives. The State's Agricultural Loan Program
includes loans to cooperatives of up to $500,000 for facility and $300,000
for operating purposes.
Understanding
amongst farmers of the sources and use of farm financing is not good.
Many farmers do
not keep the records necessary to obtain financing.
New farmers with
personal and/or family assets that can be used to help finance their enterprises
will find it easier to get financing from lenders.
The Farmers Home
Administration has a new entry loan program. The FmHA should be contacted
for more information.
The State's Agricultural
Loan Program, governed by Chapter 155, HRS, is intended to assist farmers
who are unable to secure loans from private lenders or the Farmers Home
Administration. The program is also intended to maximize use of limited
State funds and resources and to meet the needs of qualified farmers of
all commodities.
Act 22, SLH 1979,
adjusted the interest rates of DOA farm loans to be comparable with rates
of applicable Farm Credit Banks, except for emergency loans and loans to
new farmers and cooperatives. The legislative intent is that viable farmers
should secure financing from conventional sources.
The DOA Farm Loan
Program has a $100,000 ceiling on new farmer loans. Additional financing
up to a total of $200,000 can be obtained later from the DOA if the farmer
shows that he is operating a viable farm and he is a good risk for additional
financing.
Where
the cost of the project exceeds the DOA loan ceiling, in many instances,
the DOA has been able to bring in other lenders to participate in financing.
Extending information
on loan programs and assisting farmers secure financing from State and other
sources has been the on-going function of the DOA Agricultural Loan Division.
The CTAHR, primarily through its extension agents, has assisted by referring
loan inquiries to the DOA.
The time between
the application for Disaster Loans and payment may range from three weeks
to one year. Delays are usually caused by failure of the applicant to provide
the necessary requirements needed to secure the loans.
There is a general
need for farmers to be knowledgeable in financing management and the use
of credit. Training programs in farm and financial management on a continuing
basis is needed.
Cultivars
All the major commercial
banana cultivars in the world are present in Hawaii. These include:
-
'Brazilian'
(erroneously referred to as 'Apple') and 'Chinese' ('Dwarf Cavendish')
imported from Tahiti in 1855.
-
'Bluefields'
('Gros Michel') imported from Nicaragua in 1904 by CTAHR.
-
'Williams'
('Giant Cavendish') and 'Cocos' ('Dwarf Bluefields') imported from
Australia and Guatemala, respectively, in 1953 by CTAHR (College of
Tropical Agriculture and Human Resources).
-
'Philippine
Lakatan' imported from the Philippines in 1958 by CTAHR.
-
'Hamakua'
('False Lakatan') and 'Valery' ('Robusta') have long been present
in Hawaii. Both were introduced from Puerto Rico more than 50 years
ago under different names. 'Valery' has been in Hawaii at least 40
years under the names 'Congo', 'North', and 'Taiwan'. It is similar
to 'Williams' but taller and therefore, more susceptible to wind damage.
The latest banana cultivar
imported from Brazil in 1979 is a dwarf mutant form of 'Brazilian' known
as 'Santa Catarina Silver' ('Dwarf Brazilian'). It has fruit characteristics
similar to 'Brazilian', but the plant is only about half as tall. This makes
it of great interest to growers because it is easier to manage than the
tall 'Brazilian' and has been shown in several recent storms to be tolerant
to wind damage.
The Hawaii Banana
Industry Association (HBIA) is responsible for propagating and distributing
this new cultivar. Propagation is by both tissue culture and conventional
methods. To date, thousands of plants have been distributed to commercial
growers, who have first priority. Enquiries on distribution should be addressed
to the HBIA.
There are no outstanding
new commercial banana cultivars in other parts of the world, so introduction
of new varieties does not presently appear to be a very promising research
approach.
Important commercial
banana cultivars presently grown in Hawaii listed in order of commercial
importance are:
-
Cavendish
group ('Williams', 'Valery', 'Chinese').
-
'Brazilian'
(and 'Dwarf Brazilian').
-
'Bluefields'
(and 'Cocos'). Acreage of this group is decreasing because of susceptibility
to Panama wilt.
There appears to be
a demand for cooking bananas or plantains. The potential size of this demand
is now known. Also not known is the specific cultivar preferred by consumers.
Little is known
of differences in optimum cultural requirements of many of the cultivars
grown in Hawaii. Many of the minor cultivars are susceptible to Panama wilt.
'Dwarf Lakatan'
('Berangan') imported from Malaysia in 1972 by CTAHR.
Current Status
Until 1968, Hawaii's
banana industry supplied 100% of the local market, but from 1968, the industry's
share of the market declined until it only had 33% in 1980. There appears
to be a trend towards recovery except for 31% in1983 due to storm damage.
The market share
increased to 43% in 1985 with production at 8.1 million pounds. Farm value
also increased to $2.4 million.
Banana production
in February 1, 1986 among counties was as follows: Oahu, 43%; Hawaii,
36%; Kauai, 15%; and Maui/Molokai, 6%. Eighty percent ofthe 'Brazilian'
variety acreage was on Oahu, while 56% of the 'WilliamsHybrid' acreage
was on the island of Hawaii.
Using the 1985
import figures of 10.8 million pounds and the state average yield of 10,200
pounds per acre, Hawaii can accommodate another 1,058 acres before it reaches
market saturation. The actual acreage would probably be less than 1,058
because new orchards should yield more than 10,200 pounds per acre. In May,
1986, banana farmers received an average of 30.5 cents a pound. (Source
of figures: Hawaii Agricultural Statistical Service.)
The fixed elements
of Hawaii's banana industry are:
-
The
major market is in Honolulu, but there are substantial markets on
all islands.
-
Production
is likely to continue on all islands.
-
Competition
from imported bananas will continue to be a factor.
The components of a
banana system in Hawaii are:
PRODUCTION--->HARVESTING--->TRANSPORTATION--->
CLEANING--->GRADING--->TRANSPORTATION--->
WHOLESALE
MARKETING--->RETAIL MARKETING
Three major types
of bananas -- local Brazilian (erroneously referred to in the trade as 'Apple'),
local Cavendish group (Chinese, Williams, and Valery), and imported Valery
- are sold in the Honolulu retail market. Although each banana cultivar
has appeal to consumers, the selling characteristic of overriding importance
in the Honolulu market is quality.
A quality banana
meets grade AA (Hawaii Fancy) standards and has been preconditioned to a
color range of more yellow than green to yellow. Imported bananas meet these
criteria and set the quality standard in the Honolulu market. Quality is
a factor in the advances imported bananas are making in the local market,
and most local bananas do not meet these quality criteria (although it can
be done).
In addition to
buying the top grade local bananas, the wholesalers and retailers also buy
and sell off-grade local bananas. This practice causes the consumers to
have a low opinion of local bananas. Much of the off-grades come from backyard
growers; commercial growers usually deliver only No. 1's and No.2's. Although
they are paid less for No. 2's, there is no grade or price differential
at the retail level.
Honolulu retailers
have indicated that they would prefer to handle local bananas and support
the local industry if they are consistently supplied with good quality fruit
that are competitively priced. Thus, aside from quality considerations,
there are not enough local bananas available to supply the Honolulu market.
There are indications
that some banana farms are operating at below "economically feasible" levels
because of low yields. Some growers are part-time or have other crops on
their farms and so do not put in the necessary time and other resources
needed to produce a good crop. Another reason for the low yields is that
some orchards are on inferior lands which do not lend themselves to good
cultural practices. Banana yields can be improved by rejuvenating old orchards
and establishing higher yielding new orchards.
Banana yields
of 12,000, 15,000, and 35,000 pounds per acre can be obtained for Brazilian,
Bluefields, and Cavendish cultivars, respectively, with reasonable management
practices. Good growers, under optimum condtions, report yields a high as
75,000 lb/acre. If Hawaii banana growers obtained such yields per acre and
if some lost acreages are put back into banana production, Hawaii appears
to have the potential to produce 100% of its banana needs.
While the potential
of the industry is to meet 100% of the state needs throughout the year,
a preferable target for the industry to strive for, to avoid the gluts and
shortages due to seasonality, is to meet 90% of the state's demand for bananas.
Wind damage is a factor in seasonality. The average monthly production low
(in April) is 363,000 pounds and high (in October) is 539,000 pounds. In
order to supply about 90% of the market during the low production months
of January through June, there may be a surplus during the high production
months of July through December. This may cause reduced prices to farmers,
store specials, and more bananas exported (especially to Cananda, where
no treatment is required).
There are no biological
or physical constraints to achieving the increased level of production with
a consistent supply of good quality bananas. The root borer, a new pest
limited to parts of Oahu, Molokai, and Maui, can cause yield reductions
if allowed to spread and populations allowed to build up. Infested fields
can be treated with approved insecticides. An expansion in banana acreage
is expected in the Puna area. About 308 additional acres is needed (at 35,000
lb./acre) to replace current inshipments.
This assessment
of the banana industry relates exclusively to its use as fresh fruit. Some
fruit is currently sold for use as a starch vegetable. The size and nature
of this market and the potential for growing the cultivars specifically
adapted for cooking is not known and should be investigated. Many of these
cultivars are known to be susceptable to nematodes and Panama wilt fungus.
Diseases
Black
Leaf Streak
Black leaf streak,
caused by the fungus Mycosphaerella fijiensis, can be a very serious
banana disease with losses as high as 30% during wet weather in the winter.
Regular application of a high refined low sulfur missible oil plus Dithane
FZ fungicide will keep this fungus in check. The main disadvantage is that
the oil will cause water-soaked, blister-like spots on the fruits. Damage
to the fruits can be prevented by covering the bunch with plastic bags.
If the fungicides are applied with a mist blower, damage to the fruit can
be prevented. This spray program requires 2 applications: once with oil
and other with Dithane. Other banana growing areas of the world may use
chemicals (e.g., Bravo) not cleared in the U.S. to control this fungus.
The schedule of
spray application recommended is every three weeks during wet periods and
every six weeks during extended dry periods. The frequency also varies according
to farm location.
Efficacy studies
have been completed for Bravo (chlorthalonil), and the results have been
submitted to the manufacturer. The main problem now is the lack of worker
exposure data when applied by hand. If the label only permits aerial application,
it will not benefit most of the banana growers in Hawaii. It would appear
that in order for the Bravo registration process to continue, new studies
would have to be initiated on worker exposure.
New equipment
for pesticide application is a major key to the solution of this problem.
In Latin-American banana production areas, it has been demonstrated that
pesticides applied with a mist blower is the most effective method for controlling
fungus diseases. The principal problem for the grower is renovation of the
plantings to facilitate movement of equipment within the orchard.
The terrain of
some banana lands does not make mechanical spraying very easy. Many small
farmers spray with knapsack sprayers or long hoses attached to power sprayers.
Easier and more effective spraying methods (e.g., mist blowers) need to
be utilized.
Freckle
The fungus Phyllostictina
musarum causes freckle, a fruit disease which seriously affects the
appearance of the fruit and may cause a finger rot in advanced stages. This
disease seems to be more of a problem with the 'Brazilian' cultivar. Regular
applications of Benlate (Benomyl) at the rate of 2.0 oz. a.i. in at least
5 gallons of spray/acre with mist blower can be an effective control measure.
The use of a plastic bag cover over the bunch may in the long run be the
most economical control for the freckle. Panama wilt is caused by the fungus
Fusarium oxysporum f. cubense and affects only susceptible varieties like
'Bluefields' and many of the Hawaiian cooking bananas.
Cucumber Mosaic
There are a few
other fungi and virus complexes which together are of minor importance.
If cucumber mosaic is found, the whole mat which contained the infected
plant should be take out. Hawaii is fortunate in that it does not have some
of the viruses that occur in other areas.
Nematodes
Seven different
nematodes are parasitic on banana in Hawaii: burrowing (Radopholis similis),
reniform (Rotylenchulus reniformis), ring (Criconemoides sphaerocephelus),
spiral (Helicotylenchus dihystera), root knot (Meloidogyne incognita),
lesion (Pratylenchus coffeae), and stunt (Tylenchorhynchus
sp.). The burrowing nematode is the most destructive and can be considered
a major pest of banana in Hawaii causing decline in production in old orchards.
They reduce the root support of banana plants, making them more susceptible
to blow-downs.
The origin of
nematode problems is the introduction of infested planting material into
fields. Corms should be pruned and treated with hot water (122oF - 126oF
for 15 to 20 minutes). Irrigation water can also be a source of contamination.
Infested fields
must be cleared of all banana residue and left fallow for 6 months before
replanting. Some growers may not appear to have sufficient area to fallow
or to put in an alternative crop, but increased yields per acre resulting
from reduced nematode populations could justify keeping land out of banana
production temporarily. The alternative crop should not be a member of the
Musaceae or Araceae family.
Nematicides
are not generally used in banana production in Hawaii even though nematode
damage can be severe in Cavendish bananas. NEMACUR is very effective and
was used in the past. The registration was withdrawn because of potential
hazard to humans walking on treated soil, since it was applied on the
surface as a granular material. It is possible that the chemical can be
registered if it is stipulated that the material be cultivated into the
soil. Mobay Chemical Corp., the manufacturer, appears interested in that
possibility and will support registration through the IR-4 program.
Planting designs
may have to be modified in Hawaii because of the requirement for chemical
contact with soil surface and reduction of worker exposure.
Both FURADAN 5%
G, MOCAP EC, and MOCAP 10% GRANULAR are approved insecticides with nematicidal
properties. The efficacy of the chemicals is rated only fair.
Fungicides
In summary, the
following fungicides are registered for use on bananas in Hawaii:
-
Dithane
Flowable with Zinc
-
Manzate
Fungicide
-
Manzate
200 Flowable Fungicide
-
Du Pont
Manzate Flowable Fungicide with Zinc
-
Manex,
Maneb Flowable with Zinc added
-
Dithane
M-22 Special
-
Dithane
M-45
-
Dithane
Flowable with Zinc
-
Blueshield
Industrial Organization
There are
three banana associations providing some coordinated research, education
and marketing effort for the development of the banana industry. These
associations are:
STATE
ASSOCIATION
The
Hawaii Banana Industry Association (HBIA) was organized in 1969 with membership
from all islands. In 1984, there were 60 members in the association. The
HBIA sponsors an annual conference to conduct official business and to
provide information to its members. The president for 1986-87 is: Eddie
Emoto (Maui). The state association may increase its influence if it had
greater involvement of those involved in processing and marketing.
ISLAND
ASSOCIATIONS
The Oahu Banana
Growers Association (OBGA) was organized in 1964 and is the most active
banana organization with regular monthly meetings. The OBGA has worked closely
with the CTAHR in banana research projects conducted at the Waimanalo Experimental
Farm. The Association assists in determining research needs as well as in
providing financial assistance in conducting banana research. Banana promotional
programs with DPED were conducted through OBGA in 1977-79. Scott Chun is
president of the organization (1985-86).
On the Big Island,
the Big Island Banana Growers Association is an active group (President:
Lynn Richardson).
The banana cooperative
in Waimanalo is not in operation presently because of insufficient amount
of fruit available for procesing. There has to be sufficient production
within a short distance from the processing facility in order to activate
the cooperative.
Insects
Thrips
Thrips are the
major insect pest affecting bananas, especially during the dry season. Fruit
losses of 30% can occur if orchards are not sprayed to control thrips. Spraying
with diazinon once a month will control thrips.
Insects, including
thrips, appear to be getting resistant to diazinon. New chemicals need to
be screened; however, there are none in sight. Growers in Central America
use plastic bunch covers containing insecticides and appear to have good
control.
The thrips species found
on damaged bananas was identified as Elixothrips brevisetis (Bagnall),
a species not previously reported to damage bananas. Test for thrips control
on banana fruit using polythylene bags impregnated with Chlorpyrifos were
conducted on the Big Island. Preliminary results showed that the bags were
effective. Good residue data to support registration has been developed;
residues were non-detectable in most cases and within tolerance limits when
found. HBIA may be asked to serve as the registrant. Local chemical distributors
could also be registrants. CTAHR can assist in the registration petition.
Funding was allocated
from the previous Industry Analysis for field studies, but none was allocated
for residue analysis. To date, $13,000 was expended by CTAHR's Residue Analysis
Laboratory in support of the registration request. This amount should be
reimbursed to defray the cost of replacing analytical supplies and equipment.
Banana
Leaf Roller
The
banana leaf roller, a serious pest in the past, is being controlled by
parasites introduced by the Department of Agriculture.
Sevin,
which is an effective insecticide against the Chinese rose beetle, is
no longer registered. Young plants may be more vulnerable now.
Fruit
Flies
In recent years,
the Hawaiian banana industry has become interested in exporting bananas
to the U.S. mainland. However, without an adequate quarantine treatment
to prevent fruit flies from being transported to the mainland, export of
Hawaiian bananas will not be feasible. The need for an alternative to the
EDB fumigation quarantine treatment prompted Dr. J. Armstrong of USDA-ARS
(Hilo) to start investigating this problem in 1977. Currently, fresh bananas
cannot go to the mainland from Hawaii.
Early infestation
studies with 'Brazilian' bananas showed green fruits at harvest maturity
(ripeness stages 1-2 on the United Fruit Sales Corporation Consumer Color
Preference chart for bananas) could not be infested in the laboratory with
Mediterranean fruit fly, melon fly, or oriental fruit fly. Induced infestation
studies were done using all three species of flies on 'Brazilian', 'Valery',
and 'Williams' bananas. The results showed that all three fruit fly species
would sting all ripeness Field studies with ripeness stage 1 indicated that
all three species would sting the fruit, but no eggs were deposited.
Field samples
of 'Williams' and 'Valery' at ripeness stage 1 taken for 1 year from a commercial
planting showed no natural infestation inspite of high populations of melon
fly and oriental fruit fly.
Dr. Armstrong
suggests that the three cultivars of Hawaiian-grown bananas be allowed to
be shipped to the U.S. mainland markets at ripeness stages 1 and 2 without
any quarantine treatment for fruit flies. Japan, which has strict quarantine
laws, will allow importation of mature green bananas from Hawaii upon certification.
Mature green bananas have long been allowed into the U.S. from Central America
inspite of the presence of many fruit fly species. The main concern of USDA
Plant Protection and Quarantine (APHIS) is the oriental fruit fly, which
does not occur in Central America. If the industry plans to export bananas
to the mainland, it must make a formal request to APHIS and develop acceptable
fly-free fruit handling procedures. The final step involves public hearings
to change current restrictions against Hawaiian bananas.
Whitefly
The
spiraling whitefly, which used to be a threat to the banana industry,
is being controlled biologically by introduced bio-control agents.
Banana Root Borer
The banana root
borer is a relatively new insect pest. Limited field trials indicate that
carbofuran (Furadan) reduces adult numbers. Literature indicated that Mocap
and Lorsban (chlorpyrifos) are similarly effective. Mocap is registered,
and Lorsban is not. Another chemical, Pirimicid (pirimiphos-ethyl), has
been reported to be quite effective in several areas of the world. Unfortunately,
the chemical company does not seem interested in obtaining further registrations
in the U.S. Carbofuran and Mocap are being recommended in Hawaii because
they also have nematicidal ability.
The root borer
is found in windward Oahu and Honolulu, Molokai, and the Waihee area of
Maui. DOA regulations require that corms be trimmed, visually inspected
for infestation, and treated with hot water prior to export from infested
islands. Trialtreatments with methyl bromide have not been effective (borers
survived while corms did not).
Preliminary studies
(Gettman. 1984. Control of the Banana Root Borer in Banana Planting Stock.
PROC. 16TH. ANN H.B.I.A. CONF.) showed that a treatment of 43.3 oC for 3
hours is sufficient to kill all stages found in the center of corms 4 1/2
inches in diameter. Further studies could be done on increase of exposure
period, corm size, and plant mortality.
Fruit Piercing Moth
Bananas imported
into Hawaii from foreign areas can bring with them serious new pests (e.g.,
mealy bugs from Central America). The fruit piercing moth, Eodocima fullonia
(Clerck), was first discovered in the state January, 1985. Although the
adult feeds mainly on fruits and causes scarring in the process, no damage
on bananas has been reported in the state to date. This could be due to
the presence of other prefered host plants and predatory wasps.
Insecticides
A summary
of the insecticides cleared for bananas are:
(a) For Weevils:
FURADAN 5% G
(b) For Caterpillars:
THURICIDE HPC AQUEOUS CONCENTRATE
THURICIDE HP WETTABLE POWDER
THURICIDE 32B
SOK-BT LIQUID CONCENTRATE
SOK-BT WETTABLE POWDER
LASER LT MICROBIAL INSECTICIDE CONCENTRATE
LASER LC MICROBIAL INSECTICIDE CONCENTRATE
(c) For Borings Beetles: MOCAP 10%
GRANULAR
Mites
Some
growers have reported mite problems. There is no miticide registered in
Hawaii currently. Plastic bunch covers do not appear to help.
Sugarcane Bud Moth
Some
Big Island growers report severe fruit scarring caused by the sugarcane
bud moth caterpillar, Decadarchis flavistriata (Wals.). The insect
feeds on the decaying flowers, but can be controlled by existing insecticides.
Irrigation
Over 90% of the banana
farms on the Big Island are not irrigated (because of lack of water sources
for irrigation), while most of the farms on the other islands are irrigated.
In Puna, a 1 million-gallon lined reservoir costs $35,000, while wells cost
$300/ft. to drill. During dry periods, about 6,000 gallons may be required
per acre per week for supplemental irrigation.
Growers in the
Waimanalo Irrigation District feel that conservation measures during the
dry summer months are detrimental to their crops. The flume supplying the
water breaks frequently and the delivery system needs to be overhauled.
A better water management policy is needed to replace conservation.
With present knowledge,
it is possible to achieve 65% efficiency with furrow irrigation, 80% efficiency
with sprinkler irrigation, and 90% or more efficiency with drip irrigation.
(Efficiency is defined as amount of water in root zone/amount applied).
Drip irrigation
experiments conducted at the Waimanalo Experimental Farm have shown that
yields of over 80,000 pounds of marketable bananas per acre per year can
be realized with the application of 10 gallons of water per mat per day.
With the application of 2 gallons of water per mat per day, 40,000 pounds
of marketable bananas per acre per year can be realized. The relationship
between banana yield and water application rates has been determined. Yields
as high as 100,000-120,000 pounds per acre were obtained in the first and
second year only. Yields dropped in later years due to wind damage and nematodes.
Studies on pan
evaporation showed that the banana plant will achieve satisfactory growth
and fruit production when irrigated according to a pan factor of one. Irrigation
with amounts greater than pan evaporation will not necessarily increase
yields, but yields are adversely affected when irrigated less than pan evaporation.
The results from
the drip irrigation wetting patterns experiment indicate that the banana
plant requires water to be uniformly distributed to the entire area of the
mat in its early stages of development. As the mat develops and increases
in size, this is not as critical; however, uniform distribution of water
is recommended. In order to achieve proper distribution of the irrigation
water for optimum growth and yields, a lateral line should be placed on
each side of the mat and extended the entire length of the row.
A drip irrigation
system using low cost surface water requires effective filtration systems.
Experiments with "micro-jet" systems (small sprinklers) were initiated using
filtered (screened) ditch water. The "micro-jet" systems are similar to
drip systems in many ways but they are not as subject to plugging as drip
systems.
Plugging decreases
as the orifice size of micro-jet emiters increases:
orifice size (in.) plugging (%)
0.02
35
0.03
20
0.04
3
Particle size from Waimanalo
irrigation ditch water ranges from 2 to 40 microns, with a mean of 4 microns.
The screen size used in the experiments is 100 mesh, which is equivalent
to 140 microns. This size is much smaller than the 0.02-inch orifice size
which has an equivalent size of 500 microns. This shows that the plugging
is not caused by the particle size but by the sedimentation of particles
around the orifice and from a so-called "bridge effect." Orifice sizes larger
than 0.04 inches appear to be too big to form the "bridge effect" so that
plugging caused by sedimentation cannot be created.
Water cost can
be expensive when domestic water is used. One Waimanalo farmer, farming
8 acres, indicated that his water cost with drip system using domestic water
was $600 per month. Even at $600 per month, he believed he was not applying
sufficient water. With a switch to a sprinkler irrigation system which uses
agricultural water, his water bill dropped to $50 per month.
The upkeep requirements
of drip irrigation systems are high. Ants have been known to cause damage
to the tubes. Drip needs constant attention and some growers may not have
the time to invest in maintenance. Growers on hilly terrain have problems
with drip systems. On rocky land on the Big Island, water from drip systems
tend to flow straight down and not effectively reach the root system.
The Board of Water
Supply has imposed a high meter charge to discourage increased water use
on Oahu. The same is true on Maui.
Labor
Most banana growers
use family labor. Depending upon the cultivar and method of cultivation,
it takes about 2 men to operate a 10-acre banana farm.
Because of being
part-time, having responsibilities to other crops, or being retired, some
growers do not provide the labor inputs required to obtain high quality
fruit and/or the potential yields of their orchards.
On the Big Island,
it is believed that such inefficient growers will abandon banana production.
The new entries in the banana industry appear to be serious full-time growers.
Between 1980 and 1984, the average size of a banana farm increased from
6.4 acres to 10.3 acres, while the state average was 4.6 acres and 5.5 acres,
respectively.
On Oahu, the inefficient
banana growers remain in production and continue to cause marketing problems
by putting low quality fruits on the market. Between 1980 and 1984, the
average farm size on Oahu did not change significantly from 4.7 - 4.8 acre.
Land
Unless the current average
yields (10,200 lb/acre) of existing banana lands can be increased, about
1,058 additional acres will be required to achieve State self-sufficiency
in banana production. At 35,000 lb./acre, only 308 additional acres would
be required.
The low yields
per acre (6,600 lb/A for Brazilian, 7,030 lb/A for Bluefields, and 13,300
lbs/A for Cavendish result from various factors such as:
-
Poor
cultural and management practices.
-
Banana
orchards are on lands with short-term leases (some are month-to-month
leases) which do not allow growers to qualify for loans to make improvements.
-
Orchards
are located on inferior lands. Some orchards are on land that are
too steep and rocky to mechanize. Some orchards do not have water
for irrigation. Some orchards are located in areas that are too windy
and/or wet. Some orchards do not receive sufficient sunlight.
New lands that can be
intensively cultivated are needed to increase banana production, while old
orchards in marginal lands can be abandoned. New producers also need to
acquire land necessary to establish new farms. A banana farm of 10 to 20
acres (8 to 16 acres in crop) is considered adequate to fully support a
typical farm family, depending upon ecological conditions (soil, topography,
water and temperature), level of management, extent of out-of-pocket-costs
for labor, and land costs. Some general requirements which new lands must
have are:
-
Long-term
leases of greater than 20 years. (Banks will not give long-term loans
of less than 15 years.)
-
Terrain
suitable for mechanization.
-
Low
cost water for irrigation.
-
Protection
from wind to minimize blow-downs.
-
High
sunlight and temperature (low elevation).
On Oahu, the Waimanalo
Agriculture Park is the big hope for additional land. It is expected that
farmers in the Agriculture Park will realize yields of 35,000 lbs. per acre
(with Cavendish cultivars). However, Phase I of the Park, comprising 125
acres, is not exclusively for bananas but includes other crops. All 14 lots
have been leased out, and Phase II has started. Rental of privately owned
farm land ranges from $100 to $200 per acre per month. Oahu sites require
supplemental irrigation.
The development
plan for the Kahuku Agriculture Park is complete; construction bid for 168
acres is being handled by DLNR and management of the Park will be the responsibility
of DOA. Water will be available.
Big Island land
is less expensive than Oahu's, and availability is not a problem due to
the decline of the sugar industry. Farms in the Hilo area are unirrigated,
and water stress can occur on rocky land, especially in times of drought.
On Maui and Kauai,
both land and water are expensive. Land at Haiku costs about $35,000/acre.
State leases are available in Hana. Land is available on Molokai. One Kauai
grower pays about $300/acre/year for land lease.
Marketing
The share of locally
produced bananas in the Hawaii market increased from 43% in 1981 to 58%
in 1984. It dropped back to 43 percent in 1985 because of a decline in Hawaii
production and a more than offsetting increase in imports, reflecting increased
overall consumption.
Wholesalers who
import bananas must place their orders three weeks in advance. Wholesalers
look at the supply of good quality local bananas and adjust their orders
for imported bananas according to the local supply.
Banana production
on the Big Island is expanding rapidly and far exceeds local requirements.
Fruits are shipped to Maui and Oahu. Banana production on Kauai is also
increasing.
Maui growers market
through their own outlets. Maui imports bananas from the Big Island and
Oahu. The Big Island supplies 50% of Maui's needs. The bananas that Oahu
ships to Maui are imported bananas.
Lack of a consistent
supply of quality fruit inhibits the development of a favorable impression
of the local product. Quality control may occur centrally or through individual
conformity to established standards.
Alternative marketing
systems should be explored to overcome quality, volume, and pricing problems.
The industry believes that the practice of identifying good quality local
bananas with a sticker to help sell local bananas must be continued. It
is not known whether promotion of local bananas would be needed to compete
with imported bananas if local supply increases. Current indications are
that local marketers and consumers would choose local bananas if a consistent
supply of high quality fruit were provided.
Promotion is difficult
to justify when supply is a long way from meeting demand. Commencement of
advertising must precede the achievement of excess supply over demand.
A study of characteristics
of consumer demand for bananas in Honolulu was published as HITAHR Research
Series 031 in July 1984. The study indicated that bananas are the third
most frequently bought fruit in the Honolulu market, exceeded only by apples
and oranges. The majority of respondents bought imported bananas because
of superior external appearance and assured availability. It was concluded
from the results of the study that Hawaii producers could regain most of
the Hawaii market through correcting the deficiencies of inferior external
appearance and irregular supply. Based on Honolulu unloads, per capita purchases
of bananas amounted to only 13 lbs. as compared to 23 lbs. on the U.S. mainland.
However, when the proportion of respondents who raised their own bananas
or obtained them through non-commercial sources is considered, Honolulu
per capita consumption was estimated at 20 lbs.
There appears
to be a demand for cooking bananas (plantains) in Hawaii. However, it is
not known which of the cultivars should be grown for this market sector.
The potential size of this market should be studied. Most of the culitvars
are susceptible to Panama wilt fungus and should be grown only in clean
and isolated areas.
Pursuant to USDA
(PP&Q) regulations, green bananas are allowed into the United States
from Central and South America because it has been determined that green
bananas are not host of fruit flies which exist in these countries. Accordingly,
the Hawaii Department of Agriculture allows these fruits to be transshipped
to this state for distribution and sale for the same reason. Therefore,
since it has been determined that green bananas are not host of fruit flies,
there is no logical reason why green Hawaiian bananas cannot enter mainland
states for marketing.
To further illustrate
this discrepancy, Japan, a country which maintains very strict quarantine
regulations, has since July 1981, allowed green bananas from Hawaii into
its country for personal consumption and commercial sales since it was determined
by the Ministry of Agriculture, Food and Fisheries that green bananas are
not host of fruit flies which exist in Hawaii.
Nutrition
A study by
R.A. Lower (M.S. thesis, 1982. "Yield of Williams Hybrid Bananas in Relation
to Fertility, Plant Size, and Climate") found the following:
-
Depressions
in total yield were due to production of smaller bunches resulting
most likely from increased density, soil compaction, and diseases.
-
Bunch
weight and components of yield were related to climate up to 8 months
prior to harvest.
-
Bunch
weight was closely related to the size of the pseudostem at bunch
emergence and to the size of the leaves sampled at harvest. Modifications
were due to N and K fertilization status, climate, and crop age. Reductions
in bunch weight relative to pseudostem size were due to reduced leaf
area caused by poor nutrition, high density and diseases.
A dense stand of banana
is necessary for high production. An experimental planting at Waimanalo
produced as much as 2,800 bunches per ha per year. However, a dense stand
of bananas cannot be maintained unless N is applied frequently and liberally.
In a 7-year experiment, the highest treatment yielded an average of 100,000
kg/ha/yr (more than 80,000 lb/acre). Production declined in older orchards
because of limits of "root room". Optimum levels of P and K become more
difficult to maintain in older plants.
The plants (above
ground portions only) of a stand capable of producing 80-pound bunches contain
approximately 290 pounds of N and 770 pounds of K per acre. Additional nutrients
are tied up in plant residues and underground parts. Assuming 50% efficiency
of the fertilizer N, the fertilizer requirement for building up the living
crop is at least 580 pounds of N per acre. The requirement for sustained
production cannot be less than the quantity sustained production cannot
be less than the quantity of the nutrient removed. This is 2.6 lbs. N and
7.2 lbs. K per ton of banana produce. In practice, the fertilizer requirements
are greater than this; in the case of nitrogen, because of losses by leaching,
volatilization, immoblization, and denitrification; in the case of potassium
because fertilizer applied on the surface of the soil is not readily used
by the banana.
The following
critical nutrient levels should serve as a useful guideline for bananas
(tissue sampling is done on the third most recently unfurled leaf at flowering):
N : 2.8 - 3.0%
P :
0.18 - 0.2%
K :
3.2 - 3.5%
Mg:
0.3 - 0.6%
Ca :
0.6 - 1.0%
S :
0.22 - 0.25%
Bananas are generally
tolerant of low soil pH. Since liming can result in releasing or fixing
other nutrients, soils should not be limed to pH greater than 6.0-6.5. Micronutrient
effects are generally unreported although problems are suspected.
At the present
time, not many farms use tissue analyses or soil tests to guide rational
fertilizer programs. Both should be used in concert and the research work
necessary to calibrate soil and plant analyses against yields should be
expanded. An experiment is currently underway in Waimanalo studying the
effects of pruning, root crowding, and control of fungus and nematodes.
Other banana growing
areas of the world, which use good management, have planting cycles of three
to five years consisting of a plant crop plus two or three ratoons. Plantings
in the Canary Islands last for a long time under a high level of management.
Orchards in the Windward Islands rotate in 3-year cycles. In Cuba, a 3-year
banana crop is rotated with a 2-year potato crop to control nematode. Central
American plantations of 'Valery' have been in production for more than 20
years and yield 27 tons/acre of No. 1's. However, they also use chemicals
which are not registered for use in Hawaii.
It is reported
that urea-phosphate fertilizers lose less nitrogen by volatilization than
urea used alone or urea mixed with phosphate. About 40% of N is lost when
urea is used alone. This point needs to be investigated with bananas because
a substantial decline in the phosphorus content of bananas has been observed
at Waimanalo.
Postharvest
The poor quality (appearance)
of local bananas, compared to imported bananas, has been a long standing
concern of the industry. Poor pre-harvest practices on the farm and poor
post-harvest handling methods at the farm and beyond the farm contribute
to poor quality bananas reaching the markets. Poor planning and coordination
between banana farmers and banana middlemen also contribute to poor quality
bananas reaching the markets.
For bananas, all
stages from planting to retail sale require meticulous planning and coordination
upon a time schedule far more precise than pertains to any other commodity
of world trade. Good and accurate grading; proper delivery, trimming and
packaging; and predictions of supply are being done by only 25% of the local
farmers. Periods of drought can reduce the quality further: bananas arrive
at the wholesalers with a light green or yellowish color (probably due to
high temperatures and low relative humidity).
On Hawaii and
Kauai, adequate private handling and processing facilities are able to produce
good quality bananas.
On Maui, interest
in building a handling and processing facility for bananas needs to be renewed.
On Oahu, several
wholesalers have adequate facilities for handling and processing bananas.
Only 25% of the growers on Oahu market their bananas through middlemen with
adequate facilities (because of higher prices and cash sales).
Adequate nutrients
and water need to be applied for proper fruit development and high yields.
Good quality bananas usually can be obtained if large bunches are produced.
Insects (thrips,
mites, etc.) which cause unsightly blemishes on the fruit surface and diseases
(such as cigar disease) which cause fruit decay and premature ripening must
be controlled in the field.
Green bananas
can be easily bruised. The bruises develop into ugly dark scars in which
chlorophyll breakdown is hindered. Therefore, extreme caution must be exercised
in harvesting and hauling bananas to the processing shed. Farmers should
minimize bruising fruits by taking actions such as sleeving the bunches,
preventing bunches from dropping to the ground during harvesting, hauling
bunches in trucks with padded beds, and avoiding excessive stacking of bunches.
Some farmers field pack their bananas in cartons.
In the packing
shed, the procedure for dehanding the bunch, washing the hands to remove
grime and latex, and treating the hands with fungicide to control crown
rot should be done with caution to minimize bruising. Fungicides in the
wash water can be neutralized by the chlorox and rendered ineffective. They
can be sprayed on in a separate step with or without wax. Test is underway
to determine the efficacy of sodium benzoate.
For storage of
bananas (both green and ripe), not less than 58oF is recommended. Lower
temperatures will cause chilling injury (surface scalding).
Poor quality of
local bananas also may result from a lack of the necessary equipment to
handle and pre-condition bananas at some wholesale outlets.
Ethylene gas will
uniform ripen all the fingers of a hand and the precise amount of banana
required by the markets. The use of Ethrel dips (solution) is not registered
for bananas. If registered, growers can ripen their own fruits (especially
those who presently supply directly to the retailers or consumers). However,
for optimum effectiveness, humidity and temperature still need to be controlled
during storage and ripening.
(The Department
of Agriculture reviews SLN requests submitted by chemical manufacturers
or industry. Residue, phytotoxicity, and efficacy data to support the SLN
are either generated by the manufacturer, CTAHR, or industry.
Before a pesticide
or chemical can be registered for use on a food crop, a tolerance (legal
amount of pesticide residue which may remain on the crop) must be established
on that particular crop. Residue data must demonstrate that the proposed
use pattern will result in residue levels well within the established tolerance.)
Improved fruit
quality of local bananas will hasten the substitution of local bananas over
imported bananas as local production increases.
Appearance is
perceived as the overwhelming factor in quality; repeat buying is influenced
by taste.
A quality banana
is spot- and crack-free, has good and uniform shape and color, and is mature
and ripe.
In summary, quality
control must extend all the way from the pre-harvest period to harvesting
to post-harvest handling. Poor quality obtained under field conditions cannot
be rectified by any post-harvest technique; that is to say, we must have
quality fruit first. However, good quality fruit can be ruined by poor post-harvest
handling. Damage can also occur at the distributor and retail levels. In
general, the above applies to all varieties of bananas.
If bananas are
to be processed, they can be either surplus fruits or those which do not
meet fresh fruit standards. However, the pulp must be free from defects
(i.e., no decay, breakdown, or disease). Rough handling can cause internal
bruising. Bananas destined for processing would also require proper careful
handling.
Profitability
Preliminary findings
on costs and returns of 10-acre banana farms for the Puna-Hilo area (lava
soils) without irrigation and other islands (clay loam soils) with irrigation
was presented at the 18th Annual HBIA Conference. For the Puna-Hilo area,
the study showed residual net returns to risk of $1000 per acre after all
costs and net returns of $3455 per acre with no out-of-pocket costs for
labor, management and land. The findings were based on a producer price
of 27 cents per pound and an average yield of 33,063 pounds per acre for
a 7-year stand under good management. Returns were slightly lower for irrigated
areas, amounting to a per acre net return of $919 to risk and $3,298 with
no out-of-pocket costs for labor, management and land. These budget analyses
provide an internal rate of return (IRR) of 30.2% for the Puna-Hilo model
and 28.4% for the irrigated model.
Expansion of the
above study to reflect different farm size models and input-output values
is in progress.
Theft of fruits
can be a serious and chronic problem (about 3% loss) in some locations.
Growers are not compensated for the lost fruits or the time lost in attending
court hearings arising from theft charges.
Soil
Bananas are
generally tolerant of low soil pH. Since liming can result in releasing
or fixing other nutrients, soils should not be limed to pH greater than
6.0-6.5. Micronutrient effects are generally unreported although problems
are suspected.
Transportation
Most growers do their
own trucking.
Oahu receives
bananas from both the Big Island and Kauai. Maui imports bananas from the
Big Island.
Most inter-island
shipments of bananas are done by barge. Growers need a minimum of two shipping
days a week to move their produce to market. For the Big Island growers,
Tuesdays and Thursdays (with a Saturday option to make up for holidays)
appear ideal.
Wholesalers sometimes
receive bananas damaged by overheating during transportation. Some growers
are experimenting with the use of refrigerated containers for summer shipments.
The total surface
transportation cost for Big Island growers to send their product to Honolulu
markets (farm to store) is about 2 cents/lb. Air freight from Hilo to Honolulu
is 8 cents/lb. for 10,000 lbs.; from Kauai, it costs 4 cents/lb.
For those who
are contemplating shipping to the mainland, the cost is about 11 cents/lb.
Water
On Oahu, the Waimanalo
Agriculture Park is the big hope for additional land. It is expected that
farmers in the Agriculture Park will realize yields of 35,000 lbs. per acre
(with Cavendish cultivars). However, Phase I of the Park, comprising 125
acres, is not exclusively for bananas but includes other crops. All 14 lots
have been leased out, and Phase II has started. Rental of privately owned
farm land ranges from $100 to $200 per acre per month. Oahu sites require
supplemental irrigation.
The development
plan for the Kahuku Agriculture Park is complete; construction bid for 168
acres is being handled by DLNR and management of the Park will be the responsibility
of DOA. Water will be available. Some growers are not not watering enough
because of the high cost of water. In Waimanalo, ditch water costs 9 cents/1,000
gallons, plus a service fee of $2.50/acre. (This rate will rise to 16 cents/1,000
gallons in 4 years.) Electricity used to run the pumps cost twice the amount
for water.
The ditch water
supply for Waimanalo is unreliable. It often breaks down because of poor
maintenance and disrepair. Water supply is often curtailed during periods
of drought, when the need is most critical for farmers.
Big Island land
is less expensive than Oahu's, and availability is not a problem due to
the decline of the sugar industry. Farms in the Hilo area are unirrigated,
and water stress can occur on rocky land, especially in times of drought.
In a "normal"
year, Keaau has 80-120 in. rainfall. Drilling for water can be expensive,
costing $300 per foot (for a 6-8 in. hole). Well water may have a high salt
content. Irrigation is required 2-3 months per year.
On Maui and Kauai,
both land and water are expensive. Water at Haiku costs $1.49/1000 gallons.
On Kauai, growers pay 91 cents/1,000 gallons and the agricultural rate is
49 cents/1,000 gallons for over 25,000 gallons. (The agricultural rate will
increase in the future to 84 cents/1,000 gallons.)
The Federal Pure
Water Act puts a limit on allowable bacteria count in water. Water destined
for agricultural use should not be made to comply with the limits.
Weeds
Paraquat, diuron (Karmex),
ametryne (Evic), glyphosate (Roundup), and dalapon (Dowpon or Basfapon)
are used to control weeds in banana orchards:
Paraquat plus
a surfactant should be applied as directed spray to emerged weeds. Banana
leaves, fruits, and stems should not be sprayed.
Diuron should
be applied only after plants are established. It should be used as basal
spray either as a pre-emergence treatment (no surfactant) or as a post-emergence
spray on emerged weeds (with surfacant).
Ametryne should
be applied as a directed spray after orchards are established (planted).
Treatment with ametryne should be repeated every 3 to 4 months if necessary.
Glyphosate should
be applied as directed sprays or by selective application equipment. Fruits,
leaves, and young banana plants should not be contacted by spray, mist or
drift. (Roundup is registered, but labels have not been printed at this
time.)
Dalapon should
be applied to the grass before the heading stage. Fruits, leaves, and young
banana plants should not be sprayed.
The herbicides
that are mentioned above do not adequately control certain perennial broad-leaved
weeds. More effective herbicides need to be registered for use in banana
orchards.
Since bananas
are surface feeders, heavy weed infestations rob them of nutrients.
Oxyfluorfen and Oryzalin
Federally funded
research has established that both oxyfluorfen (Goal) and oryzalin (Surflan)
use in bananas did not injure bananas while providing control at certain
weed species now being poorly controlled by the currently registered herbicides.
While performance date and residue analysis were completed, Elanco will
no longer support oryzalin registration in minor crops. In order to register
oxyfluorfen for use in Hawaii, residue samples must be collected, residue
analysis conducted and collected, and a petition for oxyfluorfen use in
bananas submitted to IR-4. Oxyfluorfen is registered for bananas in Puerto
Rico.
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
Green - Seeds Co., Ltd.
81/10B Ho Van Hue Street, Phu Nhuan District, Ward 9, Ho Chi Minh City, Vietnam
Tel: +84 (8) 847 6901 - Fax: +84 (8) 844 1392 - Email: info@green-seeds.com
|
|
|
